SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT 

AND  MORAL  TRAINING 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 

FOR 

TEACHERS  AND  ALL  OTHER  PERSONS  INTERESTED 
IN  THE  RIGHT  TRAINING  OF  THE  YOUNG 


BY 

EMERSON   E.   WHITE,   A.M.,   LL.D. 

AUTHOR  OF  "  WHITE'S  SERIES  OF  MATHEMATICS,"  "  ELEMENTS  OF  PEDAGOGY, 
"  ORAL  LESSONS  IN  NUMBER,"  "  SCHOOL  REGISTERS,"  ETC. 


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BY 

AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY. 


WHITE'S  SCH.  MANAG'R. 

E-P    31 


PREFACE. 


THIS  treatise  is  a  presentation  of  the  subject  of 
SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  AND  MORAL  TRAINING  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  author's  experience,  observation,  and 
study.  It  has  been  his  aim  to  avoid  dogmatism,  and, 
to  this  end,  he  has  carefully  stated  the  grounds  of  his 
views  and  suggestions,  the  primary  facts  of  mental  and 
moral  science  being  freely  used. 

Great  pains  have  been  taken  to  be  clear  in  the  state- 
ment of  principles,  and  practical  and  suggestive  in 
their  application.  A  free  use  has  been  made  of  con- 
crete illustrations,  largely  those  which  have  come  under 
the  author's  observation  or  are  a  part  of  his  experience. 
Many  minds  that  have  difficulty  in  understanding  an 
abstract  principle,  grasp  it  easily  when  presented  con- 
cretely. Moreover,  the  illustration  being  associated 
with  the  principle,  assists  the  memory  in  recalling  it. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  treatise  may  satisfy  the  most 
thoughtful  and  experienced  teachers,  and  that  it  may 
also  be  of  special  interest  and  profit  to  those  of  more 
limited  professional  training  and  experience.  The 
author  has  kept  constantly  in  mind  the  condition  and 
needs  of  teachers  of  ungraded  rural  schopls.  It  has,  in 
short,  been  his  aim  to  meet  the  professional  needs  of 
the  great  body  of  American  teachers. 

It  is  the  author's  belief  that  the  time  has  fully  come 
for  a  more  earnest  consideration  of  Moral  Training  as 

350990 


4  PREFACE. 

the  central  function  and  duty  of  the  school,  and  no 
apology  is  made  for  the  thoroughness  with  which  this 
subject  is  herein  treated.  The  two  most  obstructive 
foes  of  needed  progress  in  school  training  are  artificial- 
ism  in  motive,  and  mechanism  in  method ;  and  it  is  hoped 
that  they  are  both  effectively  met  in  these  pages. 
Special  attention  is  called  to  the  chapters  on  "  Moral 
Instruction  "  and  "  Religion  in  the  School." 

It  is  believed  that  the  author's  "Elements  of  Peda- 
gogy," has  been  more  widely  read  and  studied  since  its 
publication  than  any  other  book  on  teaching,  with -one 
exception ;  and  this  fact  encourages  the  hope  that  this 
companion  treatise  may  have  even  a  wider  welcome. 

COLUMBUS,  O. 


CONTENTS. 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT. 

PAGE 

ENDS  AND  MEANS 9 

THE  TEACHER  AS  GOVERNOR 17 

Elements  of  Governing  Power 19 

Good  Scholarship 21 

Skill  in  Teaching  and  Managing 26 

Heart  Power  —  Love 30 

Will  Power 34 

Good  Eyes  and  Ears 38 

Common  Sense 41 

Moral  Character 43 

CONDITIONS  OF  EASY  CONTROL 48 

Requisite  Qualifications 48 

Requisite  Authority 48 

Confidence  and  Cooperation 54 

Attractive  Schoolroom  and  Surroundings 58 

Proper  Heating  and  Ventilation     . 64 

Proper  Lighting 75 

Proper  Seats  and  Desks 76 

MECHANICAL  DEVICES 80 

Proper  Seating  of  Pupils 80 

Daily  Programme 86 

Self-Regulating  System 94 

Few  Rules 100 

MORAL   TRAINING. 

PRINCIPLES 105 

WILL  TRAINING 114 

Seven  School  Virtues 114 

Other  Virtues 123 

Moral  Worth  of  School  Duties 125 

S 


6  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

SCHOOL  INCENTIVES 130 

Principles 130 

Artificial  Incentives 132 

The  Prize  System 133 

Natural  Incentives 148 

The  "  Royal  Nine  " 153 

Love  and  Fear  as  Incentives 183 

Outline  of  Moral  Training 189 

PUNISHMENT    .     . 190 

Penal  Rules 190 

Ends,  Nature,  and  Conditions 192 

I.    Ends  of  Punishment 192 

II.    Characteristics  of  Punishment 198 

III.    Limitations  and  Conditions  of  Natural  Pun- 
ishment    207 

Improper  Punishments 210 

Other  Modes  of  Punishment 213 

Outline  of  Punishment 217 

MORAL  INSTRUCTION 218 

General  Principles 221 

I.    Ends 223 

II.    Principles 224 

III.  Materials 226 

IV.  Method  and  Spirit 228 

Course  of  Instruction 231 

Outlines  of  Lessons  in  Morals  and  Manners      .     .  232 

MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL  LESSONS 239 

Lessons  for  Primary  Grades 242 

Lessons  for  Grammar  Grades 254 

Miscellaneous  Stories 270 

Literary  Gems 282 

Brief  Sayings 291 

Maxims  and  Proverbs 293 

RELIGION  IN  THE  SCHOOL  . 295 

Religious  Sanctions  and  Motives  in  School  ....  298 

Religious  Means  needed  in  Moral  Training  .  .  .  .  301 

The  Bible  in  Moral  Training 303 

INDEX 311 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT. 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT. 


ENDS   AND    MEANS. 

THE  first  inquiry  in  pedagogy  is,  "  What  is  the  end 
to  be  attained?"  This  is  not  only  the  first  but  the 
essential  inquiry.  It  underlies  all  questions  concern- 
ing means  or  methods,  and  is,  indeed,  the  decisive  test 
of  their  value. 


A  knowledge  of  the  ejid  to  be  reached 


guide  injgqclice.  It  not  only  dej-errrdnes  the  best  means 
to  be  employed,  but  guides  in  their  use.  The  more 
clearly  the  end  to  be  attained  is  seen,  the  Guide  in 
greater  the  inspiring  interest,  and  the  more  Practice. 
skillful  the  effort.  This  is  true  in  the  simplest  arts,  as 
the  pitching  of  a  ball  or  a  quoit  ;  and  it  is  eminently 
true  in  teaching,  the  art  of  arts.  It  is  not  only  true 
as  a  general  principle,  but  it  applies  to  every  exercise 
of  the  school.  All  aimless  teaching  is  poor  teaching, 
whatever  may  be  the  teacher's  zeal.  Moreover,  it  is  not 
only  essential  that  the  teacher  have  a  clear  knowledge  of 
the  end  to  be  reached,  but  this  end  must  be  •a.Jrue  onq. 
A  wrong  end  is  a  radical  and  fatal  error  in  education.  It 
subverts  effort,  and  wastes  time,  energy,  and  opportu- 
nity.  It  is  better  to  have  no  aim  than  a  wrong  one. 

9 


IO  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

A  clear  knowledge  of  ends  is  not  only  important  as 
a  guide  to  effort,  but  as  a  measure  of  success.  The  true 
Measure  test  of  a  teaching  exercise  is  its  attainment 
of  success.  Of  the  desired  end.  If  this  end  has  been 
attained,  the  teacher  has  been  successful  in  the  exer- 
cise ;  if  it  has  not  been  attained,  he  has  failed.  Every 
teacher  needs  such  a  decisive  test  of  his  success.  It 
not  only  affords  needed  satisfaction  and  stimulus,  but  it 
makes  improvement  possible.  No  teacher  can  grow  in 
skill  and  power,  who  has  no  means  of  testing  his  success 
as  he  advances.  It  will  not  do  to  rely  upon  a  coming 
examination  to  disclose  results.  Teaching  needs  to  be 
daily  guided  and  tested  by  its  ends ;  and  the  clearer 
the  teacher's  knowledge  of  these,  the  higher  his  skill, 
and  the  more  certain  the  evidence  of  his  success.  All 
true  teaching  will  bear  the  radical  test  of  true  ends. 

A  clear  knowledge  of  the  ends  to  be  attained  is  also 
important  as  a  test  of  means  or  devices.  Such  a  test  is 
Test  of  now  specially  needed.  Our  educational  liter- 
Devices,  ature  abounds  in  plans  and  devices  of  all 
sorts  and  of  varying  merits.  Some  of  these  are  very 
ingenious  and  attractive ;  and  it  is  feared  that  many 
teachers  are  using  them  without  an  inquiry  respecting 
the  ends  reached  or  the  principles  on  which  they  are 
based.  In  too  many  instances  the  device  is  supposed 
to  be  an  end  in  itself,  and  is  approved  because  "  it  works 
well ;"  i.e.,  it  interests  the  pupils,  and  is  readily  manipu- 
lated. It  is  surprising  that  so  many  useless  devices  are 
used  and  commended  on  this  erroneous  test  of  merit. 
It  is  conceded  that  every  good  device  works  well  in 
practice,  and,  as  one  condition  of  working  well,  it  inter- 
ests pupils ;  but  it  by  no  means  follows  that  all  devices 
which  "work  well,"  in  this  sense,  have  educational 


AMD  MEANS.  1 1 

value.     Interest  is  not  an  end  of  school  training ;  it  is 
only  a  necessary  condition,  —  a  means  to  the  end.  ^ 

In  the  light  of  this  true  test,  the  end,  it  would  not  be 
difficult,  though  foreign  to  our  present  purpose,  to  show 
the  worthlessness  of  scores  of  devices  now 
used  in  American  schools,  and  especially  in  ele- 
mentary schools.  They  are  found  in  nearly  all  branches 
of  instruction,  and  they  abound  in  reading,  language, 
arithmetic,  geography,  and  so-called  "manual  training." 
Some  of  these  devices  may  be  properly  characterized  as 
sensations.  They  arouse  interest,  afford  momentary 
pleasure,  and  give  the  mind  a  sort  of  shock,  but  result 
in  little  mental  power  or  skill  and  less  definite  knowl- 
edge. What  is  needed  to  correct  these  errors  and 
abuses  is  an  intelligent  application  of  the  crucial  test 
of  end  to  all  school  devices  and  methods. 

And  this  test  should  be  applied  not  only  to  methods 
and  devices,  but  also  to  studies,  exercises,  courses,  etc. ; 
and,  in  such  application,  it  must  ever  be  kept  comparative 
in  mind  that  the  decisive  fact  is  not  one  of  value, 
simple  value,  but  of  superior  value.  It  is  not  enough 
that  a  true  end  is  reached ;  it  must  be  reached  in  the 
best  possible  manner.  In  education  this  element  of 
comparative  worth  is  a  constant  factor.  The  ever  re- 
peated inquiry  is,  "What  is  of  most  worth?"  and  this 
is.. not  simply  a  question  of  worth  for  other  ends,  but 
as  a  means  of  education.  The  fact  ever  to  be  consid- 
ered is,  that  no  device,  or  method,  or  exercise,  is  in  it- 
self an  end,  but  only  a  means  to  an  end.  The  search 
of  pedagogy  is  for  superior  means  to  attain  superior 
ends. 

It  has  been  elsewhere  shown *  that  the  comprehensive 

1  White's  Elements  of  Pedagogy,  p.  97. 


12  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

end  of  education  is  to  prepare  man  to  fulfill  the  pur- 
poses  of  human  existence;  i.e.,  to  live  completely. 
Ends  of  This  includes  not  only  the  preparing  of  man 
Education.  for  the  highest  well-being  and  happiness,  but 
for  the  right  discharge  of  all  the  obligations  and  duties 
of  life.  Man  is  not  only  confronted  by  nature  with  her 
forces,  laws,  and  life,  but  on  every  side  he  is  surrounded 
by  human  relationships.  He  is  to  be  the  head  and 
guide  of  the  family,  a  member  of  society,  a  citizen  of 
the  state,  and  a  subject  of  Divine  Government;  and 
out  of  these  relations  flow  duties  and  responsibilities  of 
the  highest  importance. 

The  purposes  and  duties  of  a  complete  human  life 
touch  all  the  relations  of  man  as  man;  and  it  is  evident 
that  these  are  not  met  by  a  course  of  training  specially 
designed  to  prepare  him  to  be  an  artisan,  or  a  merchant, 
or  a  soldier,  or  even  a  citizen,  but  to  be  a  man.  Man- 
hood  is,  in  a  word,  the  comprehensive  end  and  supreme 
test  of  school  training. 

But  man  is  endowed  with  a  nature  capable  of  three  dis- 
tinct classes  of  activities,  —  intellectual,  moral  or  spirit- 
Kinds  of  ual,  and  physical ;  and  this  fact  is~the  basis  of 
Education,  {he  threefold  division  of  education  now  gen- 
erally recognized.  These  are  designated  by  the  terms 
intellectual  education,  moral  education,  and  physical  educa- 
tion, each  having  distinct  ends,  and  these  being  attained 
by  quite  distinct  processes.  It  is  not  meant  that  these 
processes  are  always  separated  in  school  work.  They 
are  not  only  more  or  less  united  throughout  the  course 
of  training,  but  they  often  blend  in  the  same  exercise. 
This  fact  does  not,  however,  lessen  the  practical  value 
of  their  separate  consideration. 

The  immediate  ends  of  intellectual  training  are  (i) 


ENDS  AND  MEANS.  13 

the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  for  guidance,  for  growth,  A 
and  for  enjoyment ;  ( 2 )  the  development  of  mental  pow- 
er,  including  the  power  to    acquire   knowl-     Ends  of 
edge,   to   express   knowledge,   and   to   apply  intellectual 
or  use  it ;  and  ( 3 )  the  acquisition  of  skill,  or 
readiness  and  facility  in  doing  or  action,  especially  in 
the  school  arts.     The  teacher  needs  to  know  before 
beginning  an  exercise  whether  its  special  end  is  knowl- 
edge, or  power,  or  skill ;  and  it  is  obvious  that  the  more 
clearly  this  end  is  seen,  the  wiser  will  be  his  plans,  the 
more  skillful  their  execution,  and  the  more  fruitful  the 
results.     The  difference  in  end  explains  the  difference  in 
the  two  teaching  processes  called  instruction  and  drill. 

But  our  present  inquiry  is  limited  to  school  manage- 
ment,  more  especially  to  school  discipline  ;  and  here  the 
prime  question  is,  "What  are  the  ends  to  be  attained?" 
Here,  as  in  teaching,  the  end  will  determine  the  means 
to  be  employed,  and  the  manner  of  their  use ;  and  it 
will  also  afford  a  decisive  test  of  the  teacher's  success. 

What,  then,  are  the  ends  to  be  attained  in  the  govern- 
ment of  a  school  ?  Forty  years  ago,  the  answer  of  four 
teachers  in  every  five,  capable  of  giving  an  Ends  of 
answer,  would  have  been,  "  The  end  of  school  Government, 
government  is  to  secure  good  order ; "  and  a  few  of  the 
more  thoughtful  might  have  added,  "and  application  in 
study."  These  results  were  in  that  day  widely  accepted, 
not  only  as  the  ends  of  discipline,  but  as  the  true  meas- 
ure of  success.  The  school  that  could  meet  the  "pin- 
drop  "  test  was  approved  as  admirably  governed. 

But  are  good  order  and  application  in  study  the  ends 
of  school  discipline?  Are  they  not  rather  the  mere 
conditions  of  successful  school  work,  —  important  as 


14  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

conditions,  but  only  as  conditions  ?  They  are  not  only 
not  ends,  but  they  may  be  secured  by  means  that  sub- 
vert the  true  ends  of  government,  as  well  as  the  ends 
of  the  school  itself.  The  teacher  who  consciously  sets 
before  himself  these  mere  conditions  of  school  training 
as  guiding  ends  is  liable  not  only  to  use  improper  means, 
but  to  be  satisfied  with  a  low  mechanical  success.  At 
best,  good  order  and  application  in  study  can  properly 
be  made  only  secondary  or  subordinate  ends. 
-X^  The  government  of  a  school  is  but  a  part  of  a  wider 
function,  —  the  training  of  pupils  for  the  duties,  responsi- 

character    bilities,  and  obligations  of  life.     The  school 

Training.    js  on}y  a  means  to  this   great  end.     "Con- 
duct," says  Matthew  Arnold,  "  is  three  fourths  of  life," 
but  conduct  has  its  source  in  character  ;  and  hence  right 
\    conduct  in  life  is  to  be  secured  by  the  formation  of  right 
v  character  in  youth.     The  prime  element  in  charactei, 
as  related  to  conduct,  is  the  power  of  self-control  and 
self -direction  ;  and  hence  the  guiding  end  of  school  dis- 
cipline is  to  train  pupils  in  habits  of  self-control  and  self- 
direction  ;  i.e.,  to  prepare  them  to  be  self-governing  men 
and  women  in  life. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  purpose  of  school  government 

does  not  terminate  with  the  school.     It  faces  life,  and 

y    Preparation  seeks  to  give  the  pupil  the  ability  to  live  truly. 

for  Life,  ft  js  evident  that,  to  realize  such  a  purpose, 
school  discipline  must  include  efficient  moral  training,  — 
the  awakening  of  right  feeling,  the  quickening  of  the 
conscience,  the  enlightening  of  the  moral  judgment, 
,  and  the  training  of  the  will  to  act  habitually  from  high 
and  worthy  motives. 

When  measured  by  such  ends  as  these,  government 
becomes  a  most  important  factor  in  school  training ;  not 


ENDS  AND  MEANS.  1 5 

a  mere  condition  of  such  training,  but  the  most  vital 
element  in  it.  It  is  lifted  above  the  mechanical  devices 
and  little  arts,  which  are  so  often  considered  its  essen- 
tial elements,  to  the  plane  of  character  training,  where 
right  feelings  and  motives  have  free  and  full  play.  It 
ceases  to  be  the  sorry  business  of  keeping  children 
quiet,  and  becomes  a  part  of  the  grand  art  of  awaken- 
ing  and  training  all  that  is  £ruest_jmd  best  in_  human, 
nature. 

A  practical  treatment  of  school  government  as  an  art 
includes  ( i )  the  ends  to  be  attained  (already  consid- 
ered) ;  ( 2 )  the  necessary  qualifications  of  the  Analysis  of 
governor  or  agent,  i.e.,  the  essential  elements  Treatment, 
of  governing  power ;  (  3 )  the  more  important  conditions 
of  easy  success ;  ( 4 )  mechanical  devices  and  plans ; 
( 5 )  methods  of  discipline,  including  moral  instruction 
and  training ;  and  ( 6 )  punishment,  its  ends,  nature,  and 
methods.  To  these  topics  may  properly  be  added  the 
administration  of  the  graded  school,  including  its 
organization,  courses  of  study,  classification  and  pro- 
motion of  pupils,  examinations,  etc.,  —  matters  now 
receiving  wide  and  careful  attention,  and  deserving 
fuller  treatment  than  the  limits  of  this  volume  will 
permit.1 

What  is  specially  needed  is  the  treatment  of  these 
practical  and  vital  topics  in  school  management  in  the 
clear  light  of  essential  principles.     This  does    Principles 
not  involve  the  divorcing  of  so-called  "  the-  and  Practice, 
ory "  from  practice,  but  the  basing  of  practice  on  fun- 
damental principles.     To  this  end,  the  teacher  needs 

1  See  the  author's  monograph  entitled  "  Promotions  and  Examina- 
tions in  Graded  Schools,"  issued  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, 1891. 


1 6  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

not  only  a  clear  grasp  of  the  guiding  principles  of  his 
art,  but  the  ability  to  apply  these  principles  in  prac- 
tice. This  ability  includes  both  knowledge  and  skill, 
—  a  knowledge  of  principles  and  methods,  and  skill  in 
their  use. 


THE    TEACHER  AS  GOVERNOR. 


THE   TEACHER   AS    GOVERNOR. 

A  FEW  years   since,  the  writer  visited  successively 
two  schools  that  presented  a  most  striking  contrast  in 
government.     The  schools  were  situated  in       TWO 
the  same  building,  on  opposite  sides  of  a  hall,    Examples, 
and  were  composed  of  children  of  nearly  the  same  age, 
and  largely  from  the  same  families,   thus   presenting 
about  equal  difficulty  in  control. 

In  one  of  these  schools  he  found  a  teacher  evidently 
in  a  struggle  from  morning  to  night  to  control  his 
pupils.  He  was  earnest  and  determined,  and  his  pupils 
seemed  equally  so.  They  walked  heavily  on  the  floor, 
lounged  when  reciting,  handled  books  and  slates  noisily, 
and  otherwise  kept  up  a  din  of  poorly  concealed  disor- 
der. There  was,  indeed,  insubordination  in  their  look, 
voice,  and  bearing. 

In  the  school  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  hall  he 
found  a  teacher  apparently  unconscious  of  the  fact  that 
the  control  of  fifty  pupils  rested  on  her.  When  he 
entered,  the  teacher  was  conducting  a  class  exercise  at 
the  right ;  and,  while  he  remained,  not  a  glance  of  the 
eye  disclosed  a  want  of  confidence  in  her  pupils.  A 
beautiful  spirit  of  love  and  harmony  possessed  the 
school.  The  pupils  glided  noiselessly  from  seat  to 
class ;  the  books  and  slates  were  handled  carefully ; 
and  a  quiet  order,  born  of  affection  and  good  will,  per- 
vaded the  room.  Here  were  blooming  all  those  graces 
of  spirit  and  conduct  that  adorn  and  make  beautiful  a 
child. 

Why  this  contrast  ?     Why  on  the  one  side  of  this  hall 


1 8  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

sucn  obvious  failure,  and  on  the  other  such  admirable 
success  ?  Some  who  read  these  lines  may  think  that 
the  difference  in  the  success  of  these  teachers  was  due 

contrast     to  a  difference  in  their  methods ;  to  the  fact 

explained,  that  one  used  a  better  system  of  discipline 
than  the  other.  But  so  far  as  mechanism  is  method, 
these  teachers  were  using  substantially  the  same  method. 
They  had  the  same  plan  of  marking,  the  same  system 
of  reporting  to  parents,  the  same  "  rewards  "  for  success 
in  study  and  conduct,  etc.  There  was  doubtless  some 
difference  in  details,  and  even  in  plans;  but  the  real 
secret  of  the  marked  contrast  in  their  success  was 
deeper  than  method  or  system.  It  was  in  the  teachers. 
y,  One  failed  because  he  had  not  in  himself  the  elements 
of  control,  and  the  other  succeeded  because  she  pos- 
sessed them. 

And  yet,  how  many  teachers  are  looking  for  the  cause 

of  their  failure  in  discipline  in  external  conditions, — 

Causes  of     in   school    furniture,    in    patrons    and    home 

Failure,  training,  in  principal  or  school  director,  etc., 
—  little  realizing  that  there  are  teachers,  waiting  to  be 
called,  it  may  be,  who  can  step  into  their  places,  and, 
under  the  same  conditions,  easily  change  discord  to 
harmony,  and  conflict  to  peace. 

Other  teachers  are  building  their  hopes  of  success  on 
new  plans  and  devices,  or,  to  use  a  much  misused  term, 
on  method:  this,  too,  without  duly  appreciating,  if  see- 
ing, the  fact  that  the  efficiency  of  a  device  or  method 
depends  primarily  on  what  the  teacher  puts  into  it ;  and  l 
especially  the  deeper  fact  that  a  teacher  can  never  put 
into  a  method  what  he  has  not  within  himself. 

These  remarks  are  not  intended  to  question  the  im- 
portance of  favorable  conditions  or  the  value  of  true 


THE    TEACHER   AS   GOVERNOR.  19 

methods  in  school  discipline.     These  elements  of  suc- 
cess   will    receive    due    consideration    in    these   pages ; 
and  it  is  here  conceded,  that,   other  things  The  Teacher 
equal,  the  better  the  method,  the  higher  will     thevitai 
be  its   efficiency.     But    the    one  truth  that      Factor' 
demands  first  and  strongest  emphasis  is  the  vital  need\ 
of  proper  qualifications    in    the   teacher.     Other   things 
may  be  important,  this  is  essential.     The  teacher  is  the 
soul  of  his  measures.     If  he  is  weak,  they  will  be  weak ; 
if  he  is  strong  in  personal  resources,  they  will  be  po- 
tent.    The  vital  factor  in  a  school  is  the  teacher.     He   N 
is  cause ;  all  else  is  only  condition  and  result.  4 

ELEMENTS  OF  GOVERNING  POWER. 

We  are  thus  led  to  the  question,  "What  qualifica- 
tions in  the  teacher  are  essential  to  the  easy  control 
and  guidance  of  pupils  ? "  In  other  words,  what  are 
the  more  important  elements  of  governing  power  ? 

In  answering  this  question,  it  does  not  seem  desir- 
able to  dwell  on  such  intangible  and  subtle  elements  as 
"personal  magnetism,"  "the  power  of  pres-  Personal  ^ 
ence,"  etc.  These  endowments  may  be  im-  Magnetism, 
portant  and  real,  but  they  lie  beyond  the  teacher's 
conscious  control,  as  well  as  beyond  his  easy  acquisi- 
tion or  cultivation.  They  neither  fall  from  the  sky  nor 
spring  out  of  the  ground  at  one's  bidding. 

The  same  is  true  of  that  much-coveted  endowment 
called  natural  aptitude.  This  is  essential  to  high  suc- 
cess in  all  pursuits  and  undertakings,  and  Natural  ^* 


teaching  is  no  exception.     The  child  is  the 
potential  man,  and  life  is  but  an  unfolding  and  train- 
ing of  innate  powers.     The  old   Latin  maxim,  Poeta 


2O  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

nascitur,  nonfit,  expresses  a  principle  that  runs  through 
all  human  achievement.  The  artist  is  born  an  artist, 
the  soldier  a  soldier,  the  merchant  a  merchant,  the 
shoemaker  a  shoemaker,  although  this  may  not  be 
equally  true  of  the  artist  and  the  shoemaker.  The 
higher  the  skill  and  insight  required  in  a  calling,  the 
higher  the  natural  gifts  required  for  marked  success 
therein.  The  artist  not  only  needs  the  natural  gifts  of 
ythe  artisan,  but  he  needs  some  of  these  gifts  in  a 
higher  degree,  and,  in  addition,  he  needs  other  special 
gifts.  The  natural  endowment  required  for  success  in 
the  trades  is  much  more  common  than  that  which  is 
essential  to  high  success  in  the  arts  and  professions, 
and  for  the  obvious  reason  that  more  artisans  than 
artists  are  needed. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  a  special  aptitude  for  a 
given  pursuit  is  usually  accompanied  with  an  inclina- 
'  tion  or  impulse  to  choose  it,  but  neither  natural  apti- 
tude nor  inclination  determines  always  the  employments 
of  men.  There  are  born  artists  in  the  trades,  and  born 
artisans  in  the  arts  and  professions ;  but  these  facts  do 
not  affect  the  principle  or  law  of  natural  aptitude ;  and 
especially  is  this  true  in  teaching,  which  is  one  of  the 
highest  and  most  difficult  of  callings.  No  other  art 
,  requires  higher  skill  or  deeper  insight  than  the  art  of 
forming  character.  It  is  the  art  of  arts. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  add  that  the  teacher  needs 

natural  aptitude  for  his   high  calling.     What  requires 

3r       special      special  emphasis  is  the  fact  that  the  teacher 

Preparation.  needs   more   than   natural  aptitude.      Inborn 

gifts  do  not  make  a  teacher,  any  more  than  they  make 

an  artist  or  an  artisan.     Nor  are  inborn  gifts  and  mere 

practice  sufficient  for  high  success.     Fruitful   skill  in 


THE    TEACHER  AS   GOVERNOR.  21 

any  trade  or  art  is  the  result  of  training,  and  hence  it 
is  that  special  training  is  becoming  the  recognized  door 
to  every  skilled  pursuit.  It  is  true,  that  in  the  absence 
of  natural  aptitude,  fno  person  can  be  made  a  teacher  * 
by  training;  but  training  can  develop  natural  endow- 
ments, and  greatly  increase  insight,  tact,  skill,  and  suc- 
cess. J  Increasingly  the  truth  is  recognized  that  the 
teacher  needs  special  preparation  for  his  high  work. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  consider  those  tangible 
elements  of  governing  power  which  determine  success, 
and,  for  the  most  part,  lie  within  the  teacher's  con- 
scious control  and  cultivation. 

i.  GOOD  SCHOLARSHIP. 

The  first  of  these  elements  is  good  scholarship, — a 
thorough  and  fresh  knowledge  of  the  subjects  taught. 

This  is  conceded  to  be  an  essential  condition  of  suc- 
cessful instruction,  but  few  may  see  clearly  its  vital 
relation  to  easy  control.     Whatever  increases 
the  confidence  of  pupils  in  the  teacher  lessens 
the  necessity  of  outer  control,   and  whatever  lessens 
their  confidence  increases  the  necessity  of  outer  con- 
trol.    This   seems  too  obvious  a  principle  to  require 
more  than  a  clear  statement.    ^Confidence  is  the  sure>- 
basis  of  cheerful  obedience,  —  the  prompt  and  happy 
yielding  of  the  pupils'  will  to  the  will  of  the  teacher :  ^ 
and  hence,  as  confidence  grows,  the  necessity  for  outer 
control  lessens ;  and,  as  confidence  lessens,  the  neces- 
sity for  outer  control  increases. 

Other  things  equal,  the  Confidence  of  a  school  in  a 
teacher  will   rise  or  fall  with   the   thoroughness    and  \ 
freshness  of  his  knowledge  of  the  lessons  taught :  ^.nd 
the  reason  is  obvious.     The  teacher  stands  bemre  a 


22  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

school  chiefly  in  the  office  of  an  instructor,  and  the 
wit  of  the  youngest  pupils  is  sufficient  to  see  that  the 
teacher  should  know  what  he  attempts  to  teach.  Thor- 
ough and  accurate  knowledge  wins  the  confidence  and 
esteem  of  pupils ;  but  ignorance  and  inaccuracy  destroy 
.confidence,  and  multiply  occasions  for  authoritative 
control. 

•K  Thorough  and  fresh  knowledge  not  only  wins  the 
confidence  of  pupils,  but  it  also  awakens  interest,  holds 
interest  and  the  attention,  and  secures  diligence  in  study. 
Attention.  The  principle  is  evident.  The  teacher's  in- 

$erest  in  the  lessons  taught  begets  interest  in  the 
pupils,  their  interest  secures  attention,  and  interest 
and  attention  insure  application  and  progress.^  It  is 
thus  that  the  teacher's  attainments  touch  the  pupils  in 
all  their  relations  and  duties,  and,  in  a  sense,  create 
the  conditions  which  issue  in  good  order.  More  than 
one  teacher,  weak  in  what  is  commonly  regarded  gov- 
erning ability,  has  easily  controlled  large  classes  by  the 
clearness,  accuracy,  and  fullness  of  his  instruction.  It 
is  believed  that  more  teachers  are  failing  in  discipline 
from  inadequate  scholarship  than  from  any  other  one 

-  cause.     Scholarship  is  governing  power. 

School  experience  is  full  of  illustrations.     A  teacher 
enters  a  strange  school,  and  by  his  pleasing  ways  makes 
a  good  impression,  and  soon  wins  the  confi- 
dence   of    pupils    and    patrons.     Before   the 
first  week  closes,  a  pupil  asks  him  to  solve  a  problem  in 
arithmetic,  and  the  teacher  blunders.     His  failure  is 
soon  known  to  the  pupils,  and  other  tests  follow,  until 
the  teacher  is  disclosed  as  incompetent  to  teach  arith- 
metic.     What   follows?      If    he    govern    the    school 
easily  after  such  a  disclosure,  it  will  be  in  virtue  of 


THE    TEACHER  AS  GOVERNOR.  2$ 

superior  power  in  other  directions.  More  than  one 
teacher  has  been  broken  down  in  discipline  by  a  rumor 
reaching  his  school  that  he  held  the  lowest  grade  of 
certificate,  and  that  this  was  granted  as  a  special  favor. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  a  teacher  has  won  the  es- 
teem and  even  the  admiration  of  a  school  by  the  fullness 
of  his  knowledge,  the  clearness  of  his  explanations,  and 
the  glow  of  his  own  interest  in  the  subjects  taught. 
Many  years  ago,  a  young  man,  just  passed  his  majority, 
took  charge  of  a  Cleveland  Grammar  School  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  an  experienced  principal  who  had  been 
granted  leave  of  absence  on  account  of  ill  health.  He 
spent  in  the  school  most  of  the  principal's  last  day, 
seeking  information  respecting  his  new  duties.  In  the 
evening  he  carefully  prepared,  as  he  supposed,  all  the 
lessons  to  be  taught  the  next  day,  and  in  the  morning 
he  entered  with  some  confidence  upon  his  temporary 
work.  After  the  opening  exercises,  the  classes  were 
called,  and,  to  his  surprise,  there  appeared  before  him  a 
class  in  physiology,  —  a  branch  of  which  he  was  entirely 
ignorant.  His  description  of  that  first  recitation  —  the 
teacher  firmly  seated  in  his  chair,  with  his  eyes  on  the 
text,  and  his  finger  on  the  answers  to  the  successive 
questions  —  has  amused  many  an  audience  of  teach- 
ers, too  many  of  whom  had  probably  realized  in  their 
own  experience  at  least  a  suggestion  of  the  situation 
described  ! 

But  the  outcome  of  the  incident  suggests  a  very 
important  lesson.  When  the  young  principal  safely 
reached  the  close  of  that  half  hour's  agony,  he  resolved 
that  he  would  teach  the  class  for  the  eight  weeks  of  his 
engagement  without  again  opening  a  book  in  its  pres- 
ence, and  he  kept  his  resolution.  He  not  only  mas- 


24  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

tered  the  lessons  as  presented  in  the  book  used  by  the 
pupils,  but  he  read  other  books  on  the  subject,  inter- 
viewed physicians,  and  even  began  the  study  of  com- 
parative physiology.  As  a  result,  he  stood  before  his 
class  daily  "full  of  physiology,"  and  out  of  that  fullness 
tf  he  taught  the  subject  with  glowing  interest  and  enthu- 
siasm. He  made  like  preparation  in  the  other  branches, 
though  less,  being  familiar  with  them ;  but  he  "  con- 
quered the  school  with  physiology,"  as  he  was  wont  to 
express  it.  He  governed  the  great  school  for  two 
months  without  a  case  of  corporal  punishment,  —  an 
unusual  occurrence  in  those  days,  —  and  at  the  close  of 
his  engagement  received  an  unsolicited  appointment  to 
a  permanent  principalship,  and  thus  entered  on  his  pro- 
fessional career. 

Nor  is  this  young  principal's  experience  exceptional. 
Many  a  young  teacher  has  "  won  his  spurs  "  and  secured 
a  good  position  by  his  superior  attainments,  —  not 
simply  attainments  secured  in  school  and  college,  im- 
portant as  these  may  be,  but  attainments  widened  and 
freshened  by  daily  study.  The  knowledge  that  tells  in 
the  classroom  v§>  fresh  knowledge. 

We  are  thus  brought  to  a  consideration  of  the  impor> 

tance  of  daily  study  as  a  means  of  growth  in  governing 

power  and  influence.     The  necessity  of  daily 

Daily  Study.    h  * 

preparation  as  a  condition  of  successful  teach- 
ing has  been  fully  set  forth  in  another  treatise,1  and  all 
that  is  needed  here  is  to  show  that  the  easy  control  of 
a  school  depends  on  the  same  condition. 

The  power  to  awaken  interest  and  hold  the  attention 
of  pupils  is  due  as  much,  if  not  more,  to  the  freshness 
of  the  teacher's  knowledge  as  to  its  fullness.  But 

1  Elements  of  Pedagogy,  p.  211. 


THE    TEACHER  AS   GOVERNOR.  2$ 

freshness  of  knowledge  can  only  be  secured  by  daily 
preparation,  and  no  lesson  is  so  simple  as  to  make  such 
preparation  unnecessary.  Even  the  reading  lessons  in 
a  primer  require  some  attention  as  a  condition  of  the 
best  possible  instruction.  The  review  of  a  lesson 
before  teaching  it,  discloses  new  facts  or  new  relations, 
awakens  a  fresh  interest,  makes  the  memory  more 
ready  and  accurate,  and  in  other  ways  increases  the 
teacher's  ability  to  interest  and  instruct  a  class.  More- 
over, such  a  preparation  not  only  makes  better  instruc- 
tion possible,  but  it  saves  times.  A  lesson  carefully 
\  prepared  can  be  well  taught  in  much  less  time  than  is 
possible  without  such  preparation,  —  a  fact  abundantly 
attested  by  school  experience.  Not  only  is  time  in  class 
work  thus  saved,  but  the  time  spent  by  the  teacher  in 
preparing  his  lessons  comes  back  to  him  in  the  increased 
interest  and  application  of  his  pupils ;  in  their  confi- 
dence, obedience,  and  cheerful  acquiescence  in  his 
wishes. 

It  is  said  that  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby  was  once  asked 
why  he  spent  several  hours  daily  in  his  study,  preparing 
lessons  which  he  had  taught  for  years,  and 
that  his  answer  was,  "  I  wish  my  boys  to  drink 
jrpjmjijynning  stream,  and  not  from  a  stagnant  pool," 
—  an  answer  that  showed  a  deep  insight  into  the  con- 
ditions of  all  true  teaching,  and  especially  that  which 
takes  hold  of  the  heart  and  life  of  the  pupil. 

Many  teachers  excuse  themselves  for  the  neglect  of 
needed  preparation  for  teaching,  on  the  plea    study  and 
that  they  are  too  much  exhausted  by  daily     Health. 
care  and  labor  to  give   any  thought  or   attention  to 
study.     There  may  be  cases  in  which  failing  health  for- 
bids full  preparation,  and  we  would  not  knowingly  lay  the 


26  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

weight  of  a  straw  on  the  conscience  of  an  overtasked 
teacher,  struggling  against  ill  health ;  but,  if  our  obser- 
vation be  not  at  fault,  there  are  ten  teachers  failing  in 
health  from  the  want  of  daily  study  to  one  whose  health 
is  impaired  by  such  study.  It  is  not  overwork  that  im- 
pairs the  health  of  so  many  teachers,  but  worry.  They 
carry  the  petty  annoyances  and  trials  of  their  schools 
as  a  constant  burden.  They  are  kept  in  mind  by  day, 
and  too  often  enter  into  their  dreams  at  night.  It  is 
this  that  brings  pallor  to  the  cheek,  and  puts  a  tremor 
into  the  nerves. 

The  only  effective  remedy  for  this  useless  worry  is 
to  exorcise  it  by  earnest  preparation  for  class  instruc- 
Remedyfor  tion.  That  teacher  is  wise  who  gives  daily 
worry,  ten  minutes  to  such  preparation,  to  one  min- 
ute to  the  petty  worries  of  discipline.  This  will  sub- 
stitute a  soul-refreshing  activity  for  one  that  kills.  A 
teacher  who  enters  her  school  in  the  morning  light- 
hearted,  teaches  joyously  all  day,  and  then,  locking  all 
care  inside,  goes  away  to  prepare  herself  for  to-mor- 
row's teaching,  is  not  likely  to  suffer  in  health  because 
of  her  occupation ;  provided,  of  course,  she  teaches  in 
a  properly  ventilated  room,  and  takes  necessary  recre- 
ation and  outdoor  exercise. 


2.  SKILL  IN  TEACHING  AND  MANAGING. 

A  second  element  of  governing  power  is  skill  in  teach- 
ing and  managing. 

It  is  one  thing  to  know  a  subject,  but  it  is  quite 

another  thing  to  be.  able  to  teach  it  effectively.     The 

teacher  needs  not  only  knowledge,  but  skill,  — skill  in 

<x^Xinstruction,  skill  in  drilling,  skill  in  testing  results,  etc. 


THE    TEACHER  AS  GOVERNOR.  2? 

Such   skill  is    not  only  essential  to   successful  teach- 
ing, but  it  wins  and  increases  the  confidence  of  pupils, 
awakens  interest,  secures  attention,  imparts    skiiiwins 
facility  in  ^earning,  increases  application,  and  confidence, 
otherwise  enters  helpfully  into  the  pupils'  efforts  and 
conduct. 

When  young,  the  writer  took  a  few  lessohs  in  pen 
manship  under  that  prince  of  American  penmen,  Platt 
R.  Spencer,  who,  in  his  day,  taught  many  large  classes 
of  young  people,  with  little,  if  any,  thought 

c  j  1171.  o  j  Ii-          Illustration. 

of  order.  When  Spencer  stepped  to  the 
blackboard  to  give  an  illustration,  he  never  called  for 
attention.  It  was  his  without  the  asking.  All  eyes 
were  gladly  on  the  master ;  and,  as  those  matchless 
forms  leaped  upon  the  board,  interest  gave  place  to  an 
admiration  that  sent  increased  dexterity  into  untrained 
fingers.  The  consummate  skill  of  the  great  penman 
was  at  once  an  ideal  and  an  inspiration  to  his  pupils. 
This  is  true  of  all  great  teachers,  not  only  of  art,  but  of 
science,  literature,  etc.  Their  masterly  skill  in  instruc- 
tion is  an  inspiring  ideal,  begetting  confidence,  interest, 
docility,  effort,  success. 

The  same  is  true  of  skill  in  managing.  It  is  not 
enough  that  the  teacher  knows  how  a  class  should  be 
called  or  dismissed,  how  pupils  should  use  the  blackboard, 
how  slates  and  pencils  should  be  distributed,  swn  in  V 
etc.,  but  to  this  knowledge  must  be  added  Managing. 
skill  of  execution.  It  is  actual  skill  in  the  arts  and  de- 
vices that  enter  into  school  management  that  increases 
the  teacher's  power  of  easy  control ;  and  it  may  be 
added  that  the  highest  skill  in  these  arts  is  always  free 
from  the  "  Company,  front ! "  of  the  school  martinet.  It 
secures  order,  but  an  order  born  of  an  order-loving 


28  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

spirit.  It  causes  a  school  "to  run  like  a  clock,"  but, 
like  the  clock,  by  an  inner  impulse.  Such  skill  is  gov- 
erning power. 

As  a  means  of  acquiring  this  needed  skill,  whether  in 

teaching  or  managing,  a  teacher  must   study  his  art. 

Acquisition   Skill  is  not  the  result  of  simple  practice  or 

of  skin,  experience,  and  this  is  specially  true  in  teach- 
ing. It  must  be  a  guided  experience.  One  month  of 
teaching  under  the  inspiration  and  guidance  of  true 
ideals  is  worth  a  year's  teaching  without  such  guidance. 
The  young  teacher  must  make  himself  familiar  with 
the  best  available  experience,  not  for  blind  imitation, 
but  for  intelligent  appropriation.  He  must  study  plans 
1  and  devices,  always  subjecting  them  to  the  one  decisive 
1  test,  —  the  end  to  be  reached.  He  should  study  method, 
but  in  the  light  of  sound  principles,  and,  to  this  end, 
he  should  acquire  as  clear  a  grasp  as  possible  of  at  least 
a  few  of  the  more  fundamental  principles  of  teaching. 
Rational  methods  of  instruction  are  only  practicable  to 
those  who  have  some  insight  into  the  principles  on 
which  they  are  based.  The  superficial  empiric  in 
teaching  is  liable  to  blunder  in  every  new  application 
of  his  knowledge. 

In   devising  and  adopting  plans,  the  teacher  should 

\f  take  special  care  to  use  those  adapted  to  his  conditions 

and  ability.     Not  every  Hebrew  warrior  could  fight  in 

individu-     Saul's  armor,  and  it  is  not  every  teacher  that 

ality-  can  do  his  best  in  the  pedagogic  armor  of 
Socrates.  The  plans  and  methods  which  a  teacher  suc- 
cessfully uses  must  be,  in  a  sense,  his  own.  They  must 
embody  his  ideals,  and  be  adapted  to  his  individual 
characteristics  and  power.  The  true  teacher  must  be 
more  than  an  operative,  following  prescribed  forms 


THE    TEACHER  AS  GOVERNOR.  2Q 

and  methods.  Carpets  may  be  woven  and  garments 
made  by  pattern,  but  the  unfolding  and  informing  of  a 
human  soul  requires  the  artist's  hand  and  the  artist's 
spirit. 

Nor  can  the  teacher  rely  oh  general  plans  or  methods. 
Special  adaptations  will  be  required  in  the  several 
branches  of  study,  and  also  in  the  different  subjects  in 
each  branch.  Every  lesson  or  exercise  has  special 
its  special  ends,  and  every  class  its  pupils  Plans, 
who  need  special  treatment ;  and  these  must  be  con- 
sidered in  the  teacher's  preparation  and  work.  A  new 
illustration  will  be  needed  here,  a  different  presenta- 
tion there,  and  these  skillful  adaptations  will  largely 
determine  success.  Growth  in  skill  is  the  sure  result 
of  an  intelligent  and  conscientious  study  of  the  teach- 
er's art,  and  growth  in  skill  means  increasing  governing 
power. 

It  only  remains  to  add,  that  needed  skill,  whether  in 
teaching  or  managing,  cannot  be  acquired  without  in- 
telligent practice.  /Skill  is  the  result  of  Need  of 
repeated  action,  and  hence  it  requires  time  Practice, 
for  a  teacher  to  be  at  his  best  in  the  use  of  a  new  plan 
or  method  /  and  the  more  rational  the  plan  or  method, 
the  longer  the  time  required  for  its  mastery.  This  fact 
is  often  overlooked.  True  plans  are  often  condemned 
and  set  aside  because  untrained  teachers  cannot  at  once 
use  them  successfully.  Elsewhere  l  we  have  presented 
at  some  length  the  different  plans  of  calling  on  pupils 
to  recite,  but  the  plan  there  commended  cannot  be  used 
by  a  novice  at  the  first  trial.  Its  easy  and  skillful  use 
may  require  not  only  some  modification,  but  weeks  of 
practice. 

1  Elements  of  Pedagogy,  pp.  182-192. 


3O  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

Skill  in  .turning  a  grindstone  is  readily  acquired ; 
and  the  more  mechanical  and  rutty  a  plan  or  device, 

crank-  the  more  readily  can  untrained  teachers 
Turning.  use  jt>  -phis  fact  explains,  at  least  in  part, 
the  former  well-nigh  universal  prevalence  of  the  old 
rote  and  turn  methods  of  reciting,  and  also  their  present 
wide  use,  notwithstanding  the  oft-repeated  disclosure  of 
their  weakness  and  failure.  Crank-turning  in  teaching 
is  a  simple  process,  and  hence  the  large  number  of 
crank-turners  in  our  schools. 

3.  HEART  POWER. 

-T  Another  element  of  easy  control  is  heart  power:  i.e., 
love  for  pupils,  and  that  love  most  conscientiously  shown 
toward  those  who  need  it  most. 

The  difficulty  in  the  government  of  most  schools  is 
limited  to  the  control  of  a  very  few  pupils ;  and  these 
are  usually  children  born  with  unhappy  dispositions, 
and  often  into  unfavorable  home  life  and  influence. 
Success  in  governing  these  pupils  means  easy  success 
condition  in  the  control  of  the  school.  As  a  condition 
of  control.  of  the  successful  government  of  wayward 
pupils,  the  teacher  m^t_jvviiLj±ieir  confidence  and  es- 
teem,— must  link  them  to  him  with  a  true  affection. 
It  may  be  possible,  and  sometimes  necessary,  to  restrain 
such  pupils  by  authority,  or  to  rule  them  temporarily  by 
force ;  but  they  cannot  be  led  except  by  true  affection. 
There  is  no  incentive  or  restraint  so  potent  as  that  of 
love.  Love  is  the  last  word  in  the  vocabulary  of  child 
control. 

But  special  emphasis  needs  to  be  given  to  the  fact 
that  the  teacher's  love  is  to  be  shown  most  conscien- 


THE    TEACHER  AS  GOVERNOR.  31 

tiously  toward  the  pupils  that  need  it  most,  —  not  to  the 
most  deserving,  but  to  the  most  needy.     This  impor- 
tant principle  is~mbst  happily  illustrated  in       Love 
the  discipline  and  training  of  reformatories.    forPupiis. 
The  successful- teachers  in  these  institutions  are  men 
and  women  of  heart  power,  —  those  who  can  love  the 
erring  and  wayward,  —  and  their  happy  influence  and 
success  show  that  the  heart  knows  the  heart.     A  re- 
formatory without  love  would  be  a  prison ;  with  love,  it 
may  be  a  home. 

A  teacher  once  sent  word  to  the  superintendent  that 
she  wished  him  to  call  at  her  school ;  that  she  was  fail- 
ing in  its  control.  He  visited  the  school,  and 

_.         Illustration. 

soon  learned  the  secret  of  the  trouble.  The 
teacher  had  formed  a  dislike  for  a  few  troublesome  girls, 
and  her  influence  over  them  was  gone.  On  being  urged 
to  take  these  girls,  several  of  whom  were  moral  orphans, 
lovingly  to  her  heart,  she  replied  that  she  could  not  do 
it.  "  I  can  love,"  said  she,  "  a  lovable  child,  but  I  can- 
not love  a  hateful  one.  I  hate  some  of  these  girls  so, 
that  I  feel  relieved  when  they  stay  at  home."  And  yet 
here  were  a  few  girls,  without  helpful  home  training 
and  encouragement,  who  needed  not  only  this  teacher's 
instruction,  but  her  interest  and  her  love.  Under  God 
she  had  the  opportunity  to  win  these  neglected  ones, 
and  to  put  some  joy  and  hope  into  their  hearts,  and  a 
little  sunshine  into  their  lives.  In  the  presence  of  such 
need  and  opportunity,  this  woman's  heart  was  under  the 
control  of  mere  natural  affection,  —  love  for  the  lovable, 
and  hatred  for  the  hateful !  The  love  of  the  true 
teacher  takes  hold  of  the  child's  future,  and  it  sees  even 
in  the  wayward  the  possibility  of  a  noble  man  or  woman. 
It  is  this  love  that  lifts  up  the  fallen,  carries  light 


32  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

into  moral  darkness,  and  sends  the  missionary  to  the 
heathen. 

The  history  of  pedagogy  presents  no  more  impressive 

example  of  the  power  of  love  in  the  schoolroom  than 

that  afforded  by  the  experience  of  the  great 

Pestalozzi.  J 

Swiss  reformer,  Pestalozzi.  To  an  abiding 
faith  in  the  possibilities  of  child  nature,  he  added  a  con- 
trolling belief  that  love  and  kindness  would  touch  and 
open  the  hearts  of  children,  and  call  forth  love  and  re- 
spect in  return,  —  a  principle  which  he  demonstrated  in 
his  now  historic  experiments  at  Neuhof,  Stantz,  Burg- 
dorf,  and  Yverdun.  If  any  reader  is  disposed  to  dis- 
credit the  efficiency  of  this  principle  of  love,  let  him 
read  the  brief  but  touching  story  of  Pestalozzi's  experi- 
ence at  Stantz,  the  stricken  Swiss  village 
where  French  soldiers  had  met  the  heroic  re- 
sistance of  the  Swiss  peasants  with  inhuman  slaughter, 
without  distinction  of  age  or  sex.  Few  schoolrooms 
have  ever  been  filled  with  more  unlovable  and  disorderly 
pupils  than  the  forty  (soon  after  eighty)  destitute  and 
degraded  children  whom  Pestalozzi  received,  with  open 
arms,  on  that  cold  day  in  January,  1 799 ;  and  with  what 
love  and  self-sacrifice  were  they  cared  for  and  served, 
and  what  a  conquest  of  hearts  and  reformation  of  lives 
were  the  results  !  "  If  ever  there  was  a  miracle,"  says 
Michelet,  "it  was  here," — the  miracle  of  love. 

The  love  that  thus  wins  the  hearts  of  children  is  real 
love,  and  not  its  profession.     We  wear  no  veil  over  our 
Reai        hearts  in  the  presence  of  children.     As  the 
Love.       electrometer  trembles  at  the  presence  of  the 
feeblest  electric  current,  so  their  little  hearts  are  re- 
sponsive  to   our   most    secret    feelings   and   impulses. 
Love  in  the  heart  does  not  need  to  be  proclaimed.     It 


THE    TEACHER  AS  GOVERNOR.  33 

beams  from  the  eyes,  radiates  from  the  face,  breathes 
its  benedictions  in  the  voice,  and  discloses  itself  in 
movement  and  bearing.  Our  professions  of  love  must 
bear  the  stamp  of  the  heart,  or  they  will  not  pass  at  par 
over  the  counters  of  childhood. 

It  is  a  mistake  for  a  teacher  to  thrust  himself  into 
his  pupils'  conduct,  and  feel  that  it  is  personal,  —  a  mis- 
take  unfortunately    not    confined   to   young  Pupils,  Con. 
teachers.     It  is  both  unwise  and  unjust  for  a    duct  not 
teacher  to  feel  that  the  misconduct  of  his    Personal- 
pupils  is  aimed  at  him,  —  that  they  are  actuated  by  con- 
scious personal  feelings  toward  him  in  all  that  they  do 
or  fail  to  do.     Such  a  feeling  is  sure  to  estrange  the 
teacher's  heart,  to  lead  to  personal  likes  and  dislikes  to- 
ward pupils,  and  to  end  in  discord.     A  reference  to  his 
own  experience  as  a  pupil  ought  to  dispel  such  a  delu- 
sive suspicion  from  a  teacher's  mind.     The  conduct  of 
a  pupil  may  be  aimed  at  the  teacher,  may  have  a  per- 
sonal feeling  back  of  it ;  but  this  is  exceptional,  —  at 
least  should  be  so  considered.     It  is  a  serious  mistake 
to  put  the  government  of  a  school  on  a  personal  basis. 
The  true  policy  for  the  teacher  is  to  keep  himself  out   » 
of  his  pupils    conduct,  —  to  consider  misconduct  as  an 
offense  against  the  school,  and  not  against  himself. 

The  writer  once  gave  this  advice  to  some  young  teach- 
ers in  a  county  institute  in  Ohio,  and  in  the  evening  he 
was  surprised,  and  the  audience  convulsed, 

,  L    .,,  .  Illustration. 

by  a  very  pat  illustration  given  as  an  intro- 
duction to  an  elocutionary  entertainment.  The  elocu- 
tionist said  that  at  the  close  of  the  afternoon  session 
he  put  on  his  overcoat  and  fur  muffler  (the  first  seen  in 
that  section)  and,  with  the  words,  "  Keep  yourself  out  of 
your  pupils'  conduct,"  ringing  in  his  ears,  started  for  the 
3 


34  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

hotel.  As  he  was  turning  a  corner,  a  little  imp  across 
the  street  yelled  out,  "My!  ain't  that  feller  got  long 
ears ! "  Supposing  that  the  remark  was  suggested  by 
his  fur  muffler,  and  aimed  at  himself,  he  started  across 
the  street  to  punish  the  fellow  for  his  impudence,  but,  on 
glancing  up  the  street,  he  saw  a  man  leading  a  mule 
with  the  longest  ears  he  had  ever  seen.  He  came 
quickly  to  the  conclusion  that  the  boy  meant  the  mule ! 
"It  is  usually  wise,"  he  added,  "to  take  it  for  granted 
that  the  mischief  of  the  school  is  aimed  at  the  mule ! " 

4.  WILL  POWER. 

Another  element  of  easy  control  is  will  power,  — 
the  teachers  ability  to  hold  first  himself  and  then  his 
pupils  right  up,  day  after  day,  to  uniform  conduct  and 
effort. 

This  evenness  of  control  not  only  wins  confidence, 
but  it  also  establishes  right  habits,  and  these  are  essen- 
tial  to  that  facile  conformity  to  system  that 
marks  a  well-governed  school.  Habit  is  the 
secret  and  the  condition  of  self-control  and  self-direc- 
tion. It  is  just  as  easy  for  two  pupils  to  sit  together 
all  day  and  not  whisper  once,  as  to  whisper  all  day, 
provided  that  they  form  the  habit  of  sitting  together 
without  whispering. 

But  how  are  habits  formed  ?  Not  by  a  mere  resolu- 
tion or  purpose ;  not  by  a  single  effort,  or  by  a  series  of 
HOW  fitful  efforts,  but  (by  repeated  and  continuous 

Formed,  activity.  \  Every  act  of  the  soul  leaves  as  an 
enduring  result  an  increased  power  to  act  and  a  ten- 
dency to  act  again  in  like  manner,  and  every  repetition 
of  an  act  increases  this  power  and  tendency.  /When 
this  resulting  tendency  becomes  so  strong  that  an  act 


THE    TEACHER  AS  GOVERNOR.  35 

is  repeated  without  conscious  voluntary  effort,  the  re- 
sult is  called  habit?  How  many  admire  the  skillful 
movements  of  a  military  company  without  thinking  of 
the  many  hours  of  persistent  drill  that  are  back  of  all 
this  precision  and  uniformity  ! 

This  is  the  secret  of  the  quiet  self-control  and  easy 
movements   of   a  well-trained  school.     These   are  not 
the  results  of  a  spasm  of  order  or  a  single    Habit  in 
day's  effort.     It  is  habit  that  enables  pupils      school, 
to  rise  promptly  and  quietly,  to  walk  on  the  floor  noise 
lessly,  to   stand  gracefully  when  reciting,  to  speak  in 
clear  and  natural  tones,  to  repress  the  desire  to  com* 
municate   with   others,  —  in    short,   to    do 
without  effort- or^resistance  that  is  essential  to  a 

r»       *~  "" 

regulated  school.  It  is  habit  that  rnakes_Jii&-pupiIs> 
conduct  free,  spontaneous,  and  uniform. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  first  month  of  a  school 
term  so  largely  determines  the  ease  with  which  the 
school  is  to  be  managed.  If,  from  the  first 

.,  101  First  Month. 

day,  the  pupils  are  held  evenly  and  firmly  to 
duty,  right  habits  will  be  formed  and  right  action  be 
made  easy.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  teacher  is  capri- 
cious and  vacillating  in  his  requirements,  with  neither 
uniformity  nor  firmness  in  control,  right  habits  will 
not  be  formed  by  the  pupils,  and  the  teacher's  energies 
will  be  exhausted  in  the  directing  of  the  school,  if  not 
in  the  suppression  of  actual  disorder. 

This  fatal  weakness  in  school  discipline  is  shown  in 
the  experience  of   those  teachers  who  are  subject  to 
spasms  of   discipline;   who  punish  one  day   weakness 
what  they  do  not  notice  the  next ;  who  have    of  spasms, 
"clearing-up    times"   in    which    they   bring   disorderly 
pupils   "up  standing;"   who  "turn  over  a  new  leaf" 


36  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

once  a  month,  or  every  Monday  morning,  and  then  lose 
all  they  have  gained  by  a  failure  to  keep  the  school  in 
hand,  —  a  common  weakness  in  the  experience  of  the 
old-time  schoolmasters,  one  of  whom  has  a  sure  place 
in  the  writer's  memory.  The  week  in  his  school  always 
closed  with  disorder,  and  also  with  a  deter- 

Illustration.         .        -,  ,       *  •  , 

mined  and  threatening  announcement  that 
on  Monday  morning  he  should  "turn  over  a  new  leaf." 
On  Monday  the  master  came  to  the  school  "  armed ' 
with  whips  and  a  fixed  purpose,  and  he  was  not  long  in 
conquering  a  peace.  Pupils  were  punished  for  the 
slightest  offenses.  The  school  soon  settled  into  a  still- 
ness that  could  be  felt,  and  the  master's  stern  features 
began  to  soften,  and  an  expression  of  satisfaction  soon 
stole  over  his  pale  face.  By  Tuesday  his  vigilance  and 
determination  relaxed  somewhat,  and  some  of  the  more 
daring  pupils  indulged  a  little  in  "furtive  mischief." 
On  Wednesday  the  master's  spasm  of  pluck  disap- 
peared, and  the  wonted  hum  of  disorder  filled  the 
place.  On  Thursday  and  Friday  chaos  reigned,  with 
some  threatenings,  and  the  week  closed  with  the  an- 
nouncement that  a  new  leaf  would  be  turned  on  Mon- 
day !  The  writer  was  then  a  small  lad,  but  he  was  old 
enough  to  wonder  why  the  master  did  not  keep  the 
school  in  order  when  he  once  had  it  under  control. 
Fickleness  in  discipline  is  sure  to  end  in  disorder,  but 
pupils  yield  to  and  respect  firmness  and  evenness  of 
control. 

The  fact  may  need  emphasis  here,  that  the  will  has 

snent       most  power  in  school  discipline  when  accom- 

Tongue.     parried  by  a  silent  tongtie.     No  expenditure 

of  energy  in  a  school  is  more  futile  than  scolding  or 

fault-finding.     It  is  not  what  is  said  of  a  pupil's  past 


THE    TEACHER  AS  GOVERNOR.  37 

conduct  that  tells,  but  what  he  is  required  to  do.     If, 
for  example,  the  pupils   in  a  class  rise  carelessly  and 
come  in  a  disorderly  manner  to  the  recitation  seats,  no 
amount  of  scolding  or  talking  then  and  there  is  likely 
to  mend  matters  very  much.     What  is  far  better  is  the, 
prompt  and  quiet  correction  of  the  careless  rising  byt 
requiring  the  pupils  to  be  seated  and  then  rise  again, 
and  to  be  seated  and  rise  a  second  time,  if  this  be 
necessary ;  and,  to  secure  these  results,  a  /guiet  motion 
of  the  hand  is  much  better  than  a  storm,  of.  words. 

A  superintendent,  wishing  to  secure  an  efficient  dis- 
ciplinarian, visited  at  the  opening  of  a  term  a  school 
with  many  new  pupils.  A  class  was  called, 

,    Al  .,  i         i  -T-i  Illustration. 

and  the  pupils  rose  carelessly.  They  were 
promptly  seated,  and  then,  by  a  motion  of  the  hand, 
were  called  again.  The  second  rising  was  not  quite 
satisfactory,  and  they  were  again  seated.  At  the  next 
silent  signal  the  pupils  all  rose  properly,  and  this  was 
recognized  by  a  pleasant  "  I  thank  you  ;  that  pleases 
me."  This  exhibition  of  quiet  power  satisfied  the 
superintendent,  and  the  teacher  was  invited  to  take 
a  better  position.  "Ten  words  of  praise  to  one  of 
censure/'  is  a  good  jnaxini__in_aiu elementary  school. 
Right  habits  are  the  result  of  training,  not  of  talking,  \ 
and  the  habit  of  quiet  self-control  is  no  exception. 

This  leads  to  the  related  fact  that  the  teacher's  will 
is  most  effective  when  unsupported  by  a  show  of _  force?? 
The  presence  of  a  rod  or  ferule  always  dis-    NO  show 
counts  the  teacher's  personal  power,  and  the    of  Force, 
same  is  true  of  threats  of  punishment.     There  were 
once  many  schools  in  which  the  rod  had  more  power 
than  the  teacher,  and  there  may  still  be  teachers  whose 
personal  weakness  needs  to  be  thus  supplemented ;  but 


38  SCHOOL  MANAGZMZXT. 

these  facts  do  not  affect  the  principle  under  consider- 
ation.    A  threatening  rod  is  a  serious  hindrance  to  the    4L. 
personal  influence  of  any  teacher. 

A  lad  of  fifteen  was   once  unwisely  intrusted  with 
the  breaking  of  a  vicious  colt ;  and,  in  his  many  con- 
flicts for  mastery,  he  was  wont  to  use  the 

Illustration.  i_-j       r         i  ^  v  ^       •    r       • 

rawhide  freely,  sometimes  waling  the  infuri- 
ated animal  with  blows.  An  experienced  horseman,  wit- 
nessing one  of  these  struggles,  sent  across  the  street 
to  the  lad  these  words  :  "  Boy,  boy !  keep  your  whip 
still  and  your  lines  steady."  The  lad  acted  on  the 
horseman's  advice,  and  in  a  month  the  colt  was  con- 
quered, becoming  as  docile  under  the  saddle  as  he  was 
beautiful  in  form  and  step. 

Boys,  like  horses,  respect  a  firm  hand  and  a  steady 
line.     It  is  evenness  of  control  that  wins.     An  essen--V 
tial  qualification  for  the  easy  government  of  a  school   ^ 
is  backbone. 

5.   GOOD  EYES  AND  EARS. 

Another  element  of  governing  ability  is  good  eyes  and 
good  ears,  —  the  ability  to  know  what  pupils  are  doing 
without  watching  them ;  to  " take  in"  a  school  without 
espionage. 

This  power  -  is  more  than  good  eyesight  and  acute 
hearing.  It  includes  not  only  acute  physical  senses, 

Present-     but  the  mental   habit   of    easy  attention  to 

mindedness.  what  is  going  on  in  one's  presence, —  a  power 

which   may  be  properly  called  present-mindedness,  as 

weakness  in  this  direction  is  called  absent-mindedness. 

It  is  soul-sight. 

This  element  may  be  one  of  those  inborn  powers  that 


THE    TEACHER  AS  GOVERNOR.  39 

cannot  be  easily  cultivated,  and  yet  the  writer  has 
known  conscious  weakness  in  this  direction  to  be  over- 
come in  good  degree  by  attention  and  effort. 

The  value  of  good  eyesight  and  hearing  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  a  school  is  fully  attested  by  experience. 
There  is  not  only  the  power  of  restraint  but  Power  of 
of  inspiration  in  the  eye,  —  to  take  one  ele-  the  Ey«- 
ment.  What  a  help  to  a  wayward  pupil  is  the  con- 
sciousness that  the  eye  of  the  teacher  rests  upon  him, 
not  in  suspicion,  but  in  sympathy  and  love !  The 
eye  of  the  wise  and  good  has  ever  been  an  incentive  to 
right  conduct,  and  a  restraint  to  wrongdoing ;  and  this 
is  especially  true  in  childhood  and  youth.  Evil  shuns 
the  light.  There  is  no  such  exerciser  of  evil  impulse 
and  inclination  from  the  human  heart  as  the  conscious- 
ness that  there  rests  upon  man  an  all-seeing  Eye  that 
is  never  closed. 

On  the  contrary,  there  is  no  one  defect  in  a  teacher 
that  is  surer  to  be  attended  with  more  or  less  disorder 
than  imperfect  sight  or  hearing.  Even  well-  Imperfect 
disposed  pupils  will  almost  unconsciously  take  sight  and 
advantage  of  such  a  weakness,  while  the  ill-  Hearin*- 
disposed  may  be  tempted  to  actual  misconduct.  The 
writer  has  had  official  relations  with  several  teachers  in 
school  and  college,  who,  from  age  or  other  infirmity, 
were  losing  acuteness  of  sight  or  hearing ;  and  in  each 
case  this  has  been  attended  with  more  or  less  decline 
in  disciplinary  power,  even  when  met,  and  in  some 
degree  counteracted,  by  increased  care  and  effort. 
Teachers  who  are  unconscious  of  their  infirmity,  espe- 
cially in  hearing,  are-  likely  to  be  troubled  over  what 
seems  to  them  an  unaccountable  increase  of  difficulty  in 
discipline. 


40  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

But  this  defect  in  observing  power  may  not  be 
physical.  It  is  perhaps  more  frequently  due  to  a  habit 

Habit  of  of  inattention  to  what  is  occurring  in  one's 
inattention,  presence.  A  teacher  may  have  good  eyes 
but  see  not,  and  good  ears  but  hear  not,  the  things 
which  concern  his  peace.  I  have  seen  pupils  in  more 
than  one  class  pass  papers  and  even  slates  right  before 
the  face  of  a  teacher  who  seemed  to  be  looking  in  their 
direction,  and  yet  did  not  notice  what  occurred.  He  was 
absorbed  in  the  lesson,  and  saw  and  heard  little  else. 

A  most   striking  illustration   of   this  weakness  was 

once  afforded  by  a  visit  to  a  primary  school.     As  we 

entered  the  front  hall,  we  heard,  through  the 

Illustration.  ........ 

open  transom,  the  hum  ot  mischier  within. 
We  rapped  twice  at  the  door  before  we  were  admitted ; 
and,  being  seated  on  the  platform,  we  had  full  view  of 
the  pranks  of  the  pupils.  We  have  seen  many  a  dis- 
orderly school,  but  we  never  saw  as  many  imps  of 
mischief  out  on  parade  as  were  seen  in  this  girls' 
school ;  and  possibly  the  reader  can  imagine  the  scene. 
The  teacher,  a  pleasant  lady,  was  conducting  an  exer- 
cise in  reading,  apparently  all  unconscious  of  the  din 
that  filled  the  room.  As  we  rose  to  leave  for  relief,  the 
teacher,  noticing  our  movements,  stepped  to  the  front 
of  the  neatly  carpeted  platform,  and  in  a  very  sweet 
voice  said,  "  Little  girls,  little  girls !  It  seems  to  me  I 
hear  a  whisper  somewhere  !  "  Perhaps  she  did,  but  we 
would  as  soon  think  of  listening  for  a  firecracker  on  a 
field  of  battle ! 

It  seems  important  to  add  that  this  observing  power 

yhas  also  great  value  as  a  means* of  checking  incipient 

'i  evil.     It  enables  the  teacher  to  discern  wrong  tenden 

cies  in  pupils  before  they  lead  to  positive  misconduct, 


THE    TEACHER  AS  GOVERNOR.  4! 

and  thus  wisely  to  exercise  control  when  only  a  little 
may  be  needed.  The  highest  efficiency  in  this  direction 
requires  a  discerning  power  as  unconscious  in  its  action 
as  instinct. 

There  is  a  little  animal,  not  larger  than  the  domestic 
cat,  that  keeps  the  valley  of  the  Nile  from  being  over- 
run by  crocodiles,  and  yet  it  is  not  strong  Theich- 
enough  to  harm  a  crocodile ;  but,  as  it  makes  neumon. 
its  journeys  up  and  down  the  banks  of  the  river,  it 
sees  fresh  tracks  in  the  sand,  and  instinct  teaches  it 
that  these  are  made  by  the  female  crocodile,  seeking  the 
sand  to  deposit  her  eggs  to  be  hatched  by  the  sun ;  and, 
following  these  tracks  to  the  place  where  the  sand  has 
been  disturbed,  it  opens  the  same  with  its  little  feet, 
and  breaks  each  egg ;  and  each  egg  broken  is  a  croco- 
dile dispatched.  The  ichneumon  is  the  perfect  type 
of  the  easy  disciplinarian.  His  whole  business  is  egg- 
breaking.  He  does  not  wait  until  mischief  hatches  out 
into  misconduct,  and  then,  with  a  rod  or  ruler,  attempt 
its  correction ;  but  he  is  keen-sighted  enough  to  see 
mischief  in  its  incipiency,  in  its  beginning,  when  a 
look  or  word  may  dispatch  it.  This  egg-breaking  in 
discipline  requires  not  only  sight,  but  insight.  Every 
round  object  is  not  an  egg,  and  every  egg  does  not 
contain  a  crocodile.  The  killing  of  mischief  in  the 
egg  involves  the  knowing  of  the  eggs  that  contain  it. 

6.  COMMON  SENSE. 

Another  element  of  governing  ability  is  common 
sense  >  — practical  wisdom  in  dealing  with  the  little  affairs 
that  make  up  school  life.  Y 

Common  sense  is  not  sense  common  to  all  persons, 
but  sense  in  common  things,  —  practical  wisdom  in 


42  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

dealing  with  common  affairs.     The  adjective  has  slipped 
away  from  the  noun  which  it  qualifies. 

Common    sense,    as    thus    defined,    is    an    important 
factor  in  school  discipline.  /  It  knows  when  to   speak 

and  when  to  keep  silent,  when  to  make  re- 
importance. 

quest  and  when  to  command,  when  to  com- 
mend and  when  to  reprove.  Common  sense  knows  how 
and  when  to  put  its  hand  on  a  child's  head,  how  to 
appease  him  when  aggrieved,  how  to  unlock  the  door 
to  his  heart,  how  to  find  a  side  door  when  the  front 
door  is  bolted  with  anger  or  obstinacy,  how  to  come  up 
on  the  right  side  of  a  displeased  patron,  etc.  Common 
sense  does  not  turn  its  ears  in  all  directions  to  catch 
flattery  or  criticism,  does  not  thrust  itself  into  the 
pranks  of  pupils,  and  does  not  lose  sleep  over  useless 
worries.  It  desires  real  progress,  and  keeps^faith  and 
step  with  right  and  duty. 

All  great  disciplinarians,  whether  in  school  or  college, 

have  been,  persons   of  strong  common  sense;  o£  tact 

Great       not  onty  m  detecting,  but   in  dealing  with 

Discipiina-  misdemeanors,  —  a  tact  born  of  common 
nans<  sense  and  a  keen  insight  into  human  nature. 
The  exercise  of  this  sense  in  dealing  with  children  re- 
quires an  intimate  acquaintance  with  child  nature,  the 
feelings  and  motives  that  govern  them,  and  a  genuine, 
loving  sympathy  with  them  in  all  their  little  trials. 

It  is  a  very  common  mistake  for  teachers  to  attribute 
wrong  motives  to  children,  —  to  suppose  that  they  have 

common     been  influenced  by  the  same  feelings  that 

Mistakes.  WOuld  influence  an  adult  in  like  circum- 
stances. They  forget  that /children  act  .more  from  im- 
pulse than  reflect  ionj  and  that  as  a  result  their  conduct 
is  more  spontaneous  than  intentional.  Not  only  is  the 


THE   TEACHER  AS  GOVERNOR.  43 

child's  knowledge  limited,  but  his  power  of  will  to  resist 
feeling  is  weak.  Many  a  child  has  been  punished  for 
insubordination  when  the  real  difficulty  was  an  inability 
of  will  to  do  what  was  required,  —  an  inability  due  to 
the  temporary  dominancy  of  uncontrolled  feeling.  It 
was  once  not  an  uncommon  occurrence  to  suspend  pupils 
from  school,  or  otherwise  punish  them,  for  a  failure  to 
speak  a  piece  or  read  a  composition  before  the  school ; 
and  yet  this  failure  was  sometimes,  if  not  often,  due  to 
a  positive  inability  "to  pluck  up  courage"  to  go  through 
the  severe  ordeal.  Nothing  less  than  a  desire  strong 
enough  to  cast  out  fear  can  sufficiently  reenforce  the 
will  of  a  diffident  pupil  under  such  circumstances.  The 
old-time  teachers  failed,  either  from  ignorance  or  lack 
of  sympathy,  to  put  themselves  in  their  pupils'  places, 
—  one  of  the  axioms  of  common  sense. 


7.  MORAL  CHARACTER. 

The  most  vital  element  of  governing  power  is  a  posi- 
tive moral^  character  and  life. 

We  thus  come  back,  in  our  analysis,  to  the  one  essen- 
tial fact  of  the  school,  —  the  teacher;  and  we  reach  the 
one  essential  fact  in  the  teacher,  —  character.    Character 
Through  all  the  methods   and  measures  of        and 
the  school  must  run  the  vitalizing  influence    Influence- 
of  the  teacher's  inner  life.     This  is  the  one  element  of 
power  that  can  touch  the  heart  and  conscience  of  pupils 
with  an  inspiring  inner  influence  that  makes  outer  con- 
trol unnecessary.     It  is  a  great  mistake  to_suppose  that 
rn^)nJLjiiflu£nce-^a^  We 

might  as  well  attempt  to  separate  the  stream  from  the 
fountain.     The  one  is  the  consequence  of  the  other; 


44  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

and,  where  genuine  character  is  wanting,  there  will  be 
missed  the  irresistible  charm  and  power  of  indwelling 
goodness  and  manliness.  //  The  most  potent  moral  influ- 
ence of  the  teacher  emanates  secretly  from  the  inmost 
spirit  of  his  being/ 1 

Addison,  in  one  of  his  exquisite  allegories,  describes 
a  conflict  for  dominion  between  Truth  and  Falsehood. 

Aiie  ory  ^s  Truth,  with  her  shining  attendants,  en- 
by  ters  the  mythical  regions  where  Falsehood 
sits  upon  her  throne,  the  light  which  ema- 
nates from  her  person  falls  upon  Falsehood,  and  the 
goddess  fades  insensibly ;  and,  as  Truth  approaches 
still  nearer,  Falsehood,  with  all  her  retinue,  vanishes 
and  disappears,  just  as  the  stars  melt  away  in  the 
brightness  of  the  rising  sun.  We  have  in  this  allegory 
a  beautiful  illustration  of  that  marvelous  charm,  that 
almost  resistless  influence,  which  flows  unconsciously 
from  an  exalted,  noble  character. 

In  the  training  of  the  young,  much  more  depends  on 
what  the  teacheyf  really  is  than  on  what  he  says/  If 
devotion  to  God,  to  truth  and  duty,  does  not  glow  within 
his  heart  and  life,  his  outer  efforts  to  secure  such  devo- 
tion in  his  pupils  will  avail  very  little.  His  words  must 
bear  the  stamp  of  a  true  man.  Dr.  Huntington  has 
truly  said, — 

"  Not  the  most  eloquent  exhortations  to  the  erring  and  disobe- 
dient, though  they  be  in  the  tongues  of  men  or  of  angels,  can  move 
mightily  upon  your  scholars'  resolutions  till  the  nameless,  uncon- 
scious, but  infallible  presence  of  a  consecrated,  earnest  heart  lifts 
its  holy  light  into  your  eyes,  hallows  your  temper,  breathes  its 
pleading  benedictions  into  your  tones,  and  authenticates  your  entire 
bearing  with  its  open  seal." 1 

1  Huntington's  Unconscious  Tuition. 


THE    TEACHER   AS   GOVERNOR.  4$ 

This  truth  also  discloses  the  secret  of  the  potent  in- 
fluence, for  good  or  ill,  of  the  teacher  s  personal  example. 
Truth  translated  into  life  not  only  wins  in-.  Teacher.s 
tellectual  assent,   but  it  touches  the  he^rt.     Personal 
"There  is,"  says  Dr.   Blackie,  "no  kind  of    ExamPle- 
sermon   so   effective  as  the  example  of  a  good  man." 
This   is    especially   true   in   the   schoolroom.      If    the 
teacher  would  banish  deception  and  falsehood  from  his 
pupil's  life,  he  must  first  exorcise  them  from  his  own. 
If  he  would  make  them  gentle,  kind,  and  pure,  his  own 
life  must  daily  exhibit  these  virtues. 

Not  only  the  example,  but  the  spiritf  of  the  teacher 
is  an  element  of  influence.  A^  sunny^  cheerful,  happy 
spirit  wins  children's  hearts  more  surely  than  Teacher's 
words  ;  and,  besides,  sujdh_a._spidt  jjs  jLure  to  spirit, 
awaken  cheerfulness—. an d_  happiness- -in— return.  The 
writer  once  visited  a  primary  school  in  charge  of  a 
cheerful,  sunny  teacher.  A  pupil  made  a  mistake  in 
reading,  and  the  teacher  endeavored  to  lead  the  child  to 
see  and  correct  it.  Every  word  was  accompanied  with 
a  sweet,  assuring  smile,  which  not  only  put  the  child  at 
ease,  but  lit  up  her  face  with  happy  confidence.  On 
leaving  the  room,  a  friend  said  he  would  give  five  dol- 
lars for  a  picture  of  that  teacher  and  pupil  at  the  mo- 
ment of  the  latter 's  success  ;  that  he  would  like  to 
show  it  to  several  teachers  of  his  acquaintance,  who 
meet  every  mistake  with  a  frown.  How  many  teachers 
have  the  habit  of  talking  to  their  pupils  in  a  high- 
keyed,  sharp,  and  rasping  voice  !  We  never  enter  a 
schoolroom  where  such  a  teacher  is  "  at  his  best  "  with- 
out feeling  an  impulse  to  make  a  hasty  departure. 

What  is  said  above  of  the  influence  of    a  cheerful, 
sunny  spirit  is  also  true  of  a  generous,  unsuspecting, 


46  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

trusting  disposition.  Confidence  is  as  surely  attended 
by  good  will  as  distrust  is  accompanied  by  dislike,  and 
Generous  certainly  it  is  not  in  human  nature  to  like  to 
Disposition,  be  treated  with  suspicion  ;  and  this  is  not  only 
a  common  but  a  serious  mistake  in  the  government  of 
children.  But  what  we  desire  to  emphasize  is  the 
happy  influence  of  a  positive  trust  and  confidence,  —  not 
a  trust  born  of  moral  weakness,  blind  to  actual  wrong, 
and  easily  deceived,  —  a  weakness  sure  to  be  despised 
even  by  the  youngest,  —  but  a  trust  born  of  love. 
"  Charity  thinketh  no  evil,"  but  it  is  not  blind  to  evil. 

It  is  also  important  that  the  teacher  be  free  from  ill 

temper  and   a  censorious   and   irascible    spirit.     Some 

in         teachers  mistake  severity  for  thoroughness. 

Temper.  They  resort  to  sharp  criticism  and  sarcasm 
to  cause  pupils  "to  do  their  best,"  as  they  say,  forget- 
ting that  such  treatment  prevents  any  one  from  doing 
his  best.  Fear  dissipates  attention  and  prevents  thought. 
Teachers  who  break  into  anger  because  pupils  make  a 
mistake,  commit  a  blunder  tenfold  greater  than  their 
pupils.  What  tortures  sensitive  pupils  suffer  under  such 
teachers,  and  especially  children  who  live  in  an  atmos- 
phere of  sympathy  and  love  at  home  !  The  young 
teacher  should  resist  every  impulse  to  be  angry,  or  to 
speak  in  a  harsh  and  petulant  manner.  If  there  be  a 
disqualification  which,  next  to  immorality  and  ignorance, 
should  be  a  bar  to  the  teacher's  office,  it  is  the  posses- 
X  sion  of  a  morose  and  irascible  temper.  KThe  man  who 
cannot  control  his  own  temper  and  spirit  is  not  fitted 
to  be  the  guide  and  pattern  of  the  young.K 

Truthful-         It    seems    unnecessary    to    add    that    the 

ness-       teacher    should    be    a    man  who   speaks  the 

truth  and  acts  the  truth.     It  is  a  great  misfortune  for  a 


THE    TEACHER  AS   GOVERNOR.  47 

child  to  be  under  the  influence  of  a  teacher  who  deceives 
patrons  and  visitors  as  to  the  real  attainments  of  pupils  ; 
who  trains  his  pupils  to  seem  to  know  what  they  do 
not  know,  as  in  public  examinations,  so  called  ;  who 
assigns  false  reasons  for  his  acts ;  who  pretends  not  to 
be  watching  pupils  that  he  may  "catch  them  in  mis- 
chief ; "  who  makes  promises  that  he  does  not  intend 
to  keep,  or,  what  is  about  as  bad,  forgets  to  keep ;  who 
pretends  to  know  that  of  which  he  is  ignorant  ;  who 
marks  pupils  in  the  absence  of  knowledge ;  or  who,  in 
other  ways,  departs  from  the  truth.  In  truthfulness, 
the  teacher  cannot  be  a  signboard.  He  must  himself 
go  the  way  he  points. 

It  ought  to  go  without  the  saying  that  the  teacher  of 
children  should  be  free  from  vice.  He  who  would  form 
in  the  young  a  controlling  purpose  to  keep 
their  lives  free  from  evil  habits,  should  keep 
his  own  life  free.  It  is  the  clear  and  high  duty  of  the 
school  to  fortify  its  pupils  against  evil  habits,  —  habits 
that  destroy  health  and  reputation,  that  waste  time  and 
money,  that  take  away  self-control,  that  dishonor  one's 
self  and  family,  etc. ;  but  instruction  in  these  matters, 
though  scientific  and  even  beautiful,  will  accomplish 
very  little  if  offset  by  the  teacher's  personal  example. 
Such  instruction  must  come  from  the  teacher's  heart, 
and  be  emphasized  by  his  life. 

If  the  writer  had  the  power  of  making  one  law  for 
the  governing  of  American  schools,  and  only  one,  and 
this  in  a  single  sentence,  —  a  law  to  be  written  over 
every  schoolroom  door,  —  he  would  have  little  difficulty 
in  determining  what  it  should  be.  It  would  be  in  about 
these  words  \No  man  or  woman  shall  enter  here  as  a 
teacher,  whose  character  and  life  are  not  fit  models  for 
the  young  to  copy»\ 


48  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


CONDITIONS    OF   EASY   CONTROL. 

MERE  conditions  do  not  determine  success ;  but, 
when  favorable,  they  make  success  easier,  and  hence  are 
worthy  of  careful  consideration.  Attention  is  invited 
to  several  of  the  more  important  conditions  in  school 
government. 

REQUISITE  QUALIFICATIONS. 

The  vital  condition,  as  already  shown,  is  a  teacher 
possessing  requisite  qualifications.  This  is  subjective 
and  essential,  and  has  been  fully  considered  above. 
There  are  other  important  conditions  which  also  per- 
tain to  the  teacher,  but  are  more  external  and  less 
personal. 

REQUISITE  AUTHORITY. 

The  first  of  these  conditions  is  the  teacher  s  possession 
of  requisite  authority ',  —  an  authority  clearly  recognizet 
by  pupils  and  patrons,  and  all  others  directly  interested  i\ 
the  school. 

This  is  an  important  condition,  not  only  for  easy  con- 
trol, but  also  for  the  highest  success  in  instruction. 
The  more  the  teacher  represents  officially  as  well  as 
personally  in  a  school,  the  higher  will  be  the  pupils' 
confidence  in  him,  the  easier  his  control,  the  more 
effective  his  plans,  and  the  more  successful  his  efforts. 
This  is  an  obvious  principle,  —  too  obvious  for  extended 
discussion,  were  it  more  generally  observed. 


CONDITIONS   OF  EASY  CONTROL.  49 

The  teacher  is  not  only  in  loco  parentis,  but  he  also 
stands  in  his  own  place,  and,  in  virtue  of  his  office,  is 
vested  with  rights  _and  jDowers,  as  well  as  inherent 
with  responsibilities  and  duties.  It  is  im-  Authority, 
portant  that  these  inherent  rights  be  recognized _.and 
honored  by  all.  It  is  the  beginning  of  serious  trouble 
irTaT  school  when  the  officers  thereof  call  in  question 
the  rightful  authority  of  the  teacher,  and  this  is  often 
done  ignorantly.  There  are  not  a  few  persons  who 
suppose  that  all  of  the  teacher's  authority  in  a  school 
is  delegated  by  the  school  board,  and  hence  that  this 
authority  may  be  limited  or  denied  by  such  board  at 
its  pleasure.  This  supposition  overlooks  the  historical 
fact  that  the  teacher  existed  long  before  the  school 
board,  and  that,  in  virtue  of  his  office,  he  was  endowed 
with  inherent  rights  and  authority.  The  law  nowhere 
denies  or  annuls  these  historic  and  inherent  teaching 
powers,  nor  does  it  invest  them  in  the  school  board. 
They  remain  with  the  teacher,  an  essential  attribute  of 
his  high  office. 

It    is    true    that    the    law   gives    school    boards    the 
power  to  employ  teaqhers,  to  prescribe  courses  of  study 
and  instruction,  and  to  exercise  supervisory    PowersoJ 
authority  over  the  schools  fSuT55pSv4sion  is      school  ] 
not  teaching,  and  the  supervisory  function  as     Boards-  j 
embodied  in  the  school  board  does  not  include  teach- 
ing functions.     The  school  board  may  employ  teachers  ; 
but  neither  its  officers  nor  its  members  are  teachers,  and 
they  cannot  wisely  or  legally  exercise  teaching  powers 
or  functions. 

The  authority^  of  the  school  board  to  prescribe  need- 
ful regulations  for  the  government  of  the  schools  ought 
not  to  be  construed  as  conferring  the  right  to  abridge 

4 


50  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

or  annul  inherent  teaching  powers.  Rules  relating  to 
the  details  of  instruction  and  discipline  should,  for  this 

school  reason,  be  most  carefully  considered.  No 
Regulations.  school  board,  for  example,  can  rightfully  pre- 
scribe that  teachers  shall  punish  with  a  rod  any  pupil 
who  whispers  without  permission,  this  being  a  clear 
assumption  of  the  teaching  function  ;  but  a  board  may 
properly  enact,  if  this  be  necessary,  that  no  pupil  shall 
be  punished  with  a  rod  for  failing  in  a  lesson,  such  pun- 
ishment being  a  clear  abuse  of  the  teacher's  authority, 
and,  it  may  be  added,  an  abuse  so  obvious  that  no  regu- 
lation ought  to  be  required  for  its  correction. 

As  a  rule,  school  regulations  touching  the  details  of 
discipline  and  instruction,  if  enacted,  should  be  prohitpi- 
tory  of  ojjyipus  abuses,  and  notjiidactic  or.jdirective.  It 
Prohibitory  is  the  teacher's  function  to  determine  when 
Rules,  punishment  is  required,  to  devise  detailed 
plans  of  instruction,  to  assign  lessons  and  exercises,  to 
decide  when  they  are  properly  prepared,  and  to  deter- 
mine the  steps  to  be  taken  in  reaching  a  desired  result. 
These  and  other  like  duties  are  elements  of  teaching, 
and  as  such  belong  primarily  to  the  teacher. 

One  of  the  tendencies  in  present  school  adminis- 
tration that  most  needs  correction  is  an  increasing 
assumption  by  school  officers  of  the  rights  and  duties 
Assumption  inherent  in  the  teacher's  office.  This  ten- 
of  Teaching  dency  is  not  only  seen  in  school  regulations 

Powers.  tkat  violate  the  principles  above  stated,  but 
more  seriously  in  supervision,  and  especially  in  super- 
vision by  members  of  school  boards,  acting  as  individ- 
uals or  as  committees.  It  is  believed  to  be  not  an 
uncommon  thing  for  a  school  director  or  trustee  to 
dictate  to  teachers  the  methods  to  be  used  in  teaching 


CONDITIONS  OF  EASY  CONTROL.  51 

given  subjects,  and  also  what  they  are  to  require  the 
pupils  to  do.  Teachers  are  told  authoritatively  that 
they  must  not  require  pupils  to  prepare  spelling  lessons 
by  writing ;  that  all  spelling  exercises  must  be  oral ; 
that  pupils  must  be  taught  the  alphabet  before  they 
attempt  to  read ;  that  pupils  must  be  permitted  to  read 
at  least  one  verse  each,  and  that  they  must  read  twice 
a  day ;  that  the  pupils  must  recite  by  turn  ;  that  pupils 
must  not  "  begin  multiplication  "  until  they  have  learned 
the  multiplication  table ;  that  the  rules  in  arithmetic 
must  be  learned  by  heart  before  any  problems  are 
solved ;  that  the  text  in  geography  must  be  committed 
to  memory ;  that  no  wall  maps  are  to  be  used  in  recita- 
tions ;  that  all  tables  in  primary  grades  are  to  be  recited 
in  concert,  etc. 

It  is  easy  to  see  the  mischief  which  must  result  from 
such  official  dictation  in  the  details  of  teaching,  and  it 
is  obvious  that  such  dictation  is  even  more  Limit8to 
mischievous,  and  perhaps  more  common,  with  Director's 
reference  to  discipline  ;  and  all  this  mischief  Authority- 
may  be  done  by  a  school  officer  without  his  even  dream- 
ing that  neither  the  law  nor  the  school  regulations  give 
him  an  iota  of  official  authority  in  these  matters ;  that 
he  has  no  more  legal  right  "to  play  teacher"  in  the 
schools  than  any  other  citizen.     It  may,  of  course,  be 
entirely  rjrorjer__fojL  a  school  director  or  committeeman 
to  ^al]^^ntiorL_ta-what  may  seem-  defects  in  a  school, 
or  to  make  suggestions  looking  to  its  improvement,  — 
and  every  true   teacher  will  welcome  such  efforts  to 
render   assistance, — but  we  are  not  now  considering 
the   propriety    of   official  ^  advice,    but   of   authoritative^ 
direction,  —  a  very  different  matter. 

It  is  Relieved  that  there  are  thousands  of  American 


52  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

teachers,  especially  in  country  districts,  who  are  not 
teaching  according  to  their  best  knowledge  or  best 
Resulting  judgment,  because  of  official  interference  or 
Mischiefs,  fag  fear  Of  it  .  and  f or  this  reason  hundreds 
of  schools  are  in  disorder,  with  a  sacrifice  of  needed 
efficiency  and  progress.  What  a  happy  change  would 
occur  in  these  schools  were  the  teachers  officially  en- 
couraged to  do  their  best,  and,  to  this  end,  to  seek  for 
the  most  helpful  information  and  the  most  approved 
plans  and  methods  !  If  this  were  done,  in  the  place  of 
stagnation  and  dull  routine  there  would  soon  appear 
order,  life,  and  progress. 

This  mistake  of  official  dictation  is  sometimes  made 
by  superintendents  and  principals ;  and  it  always  occurs 
when  a  superintendent  prescribes  the  details  of  instruc- 
Mistakes     ^on   an<^   discipline,   and    then   enforces  the 
of  superin-  same  by  personal  oversight  and  direction  of 
tendents.    ^Q  teacher's  WOrk.     Such  a  course  of  pro- 
cedure  reduces    the  teacher   to   an    operative,  and,  is 
subversive   of    all   true    teaching.     The    most    helpful 
supervision  does  not  dictate  or  prescribe  details-;  but 
it  asks  for  resujts,  and  then  so  jnstructs,  inspires,  and 
guidesjteachers,  that  they  freely  put  their  best  thought 
and  effort  into  whatever  they  do.     This  means  profes- 
sional progress,  growth  in  skill,  and  increasing  success. 

It  was  once  too  common  a  mistake  for  superintend- 
ents to  criticise  teachers  in  the  presence  of  their  classes, 

criticism  tnus  und^^^I^KJkeJI-^Lfluence  ancLauthor- 
oTT  ity,  and  also  lessening  the  confidence  of  the 

Teachers.  pUpiJs  jn  their  teaching  ability.  The  fre- 
quency of  this  mistake  has  been  happily  lessened  by  a 
better  understanding  of  the  supervisory  function,  and 
a  clearer  knowledge  of  the  means  to  be  employed  to 


CONDITIONS   OF  EASY  CONTROL.  53 

secure  better  teaching ;  and  all  this  has  been  the  result 
of  a  wide  and  intelligent  discussion  of  the  relation  be- 
tween superintendent  and  teacher. 

It  may  be  true  that  neither  dictation  nor  criticism  is 
as  mischievous  when  made  by  a  superintendent  or  head 
teacher  as  when  made  by  a  school  trustee  or  director. 
The  superintendent  as  an  expert  (if  one)  would  not 
only  be  less  likely  to  give  wrong  directions  or  criticisms, 
but  he  would  be  able  to  supplement  the  same  by  more 
helpful  assistance,  if  desired ;  but  the  fact  remains 
that  the  teacher  has  been  unwisely  humiliated  in  his 
school,  and  this  is  always  a  mistake,  if  not  a  wrong. 
Our  wisest  superintendents  are  careful  not  to  come 
authoritatively  between  the  teacher  and  the  pupil. 
They  rather  seek,  in  the  presence  of  pupils,  to  magnify 
the  teaching  office  and  honor  the  teacher. 

The  teacher's  authority  in  matters  of  instruction  and 
discipline  is  perhaps  more  frequently  questioned  by 
school  patrons  than  by  school  officers.  There  are 
probably  few  school  districts  in  which  the 

J  Teacher's 

patrons  are  agreed,  for  example,  respecting   Authority 
the  teacher's  right  to  prescribe  rules  relating  questioned 
to  the  absence  or  tardiness  of  pupils  ;  to  take  by  P 
cognizance    of   their   conduct    on    the  way  to    or  from 
school ;  to  retain  them  after  school  for  needed  assist- 
tance,  or  to  complete  neglected  work ;  to  require  them 
to    be  supplied  with  the  necessary  books,  etc. ;  to  re- 
quire   them  to   come  to    school  with  clean    hands  and 
faces,  and  otherwise  tidy ;  and  other  like  matters. 

Teachers  naturally,  often  wisely,  hesitate  to  exercise 
doubtful  or  disputed  authority ;  and  the  result  is  a  lack 
of  efficiency,  and,  as  a  consequence,  a  serious  loss  to 
the  school ;  and  this  is  specially  true  when  teachers 


54  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

are  not  themselves  well  informed  respecting  theif 
authority  and  duty.  Here  is  a  proper  field  for  school 
,  in  mo^txitles^and  towns,  boards  pTedu- 


cation  have  enacted  rules  governing  these  matters,  and, 
as  a  result,  there  is  neither  doubt  nor  conflict  respect- 
\ng  the  authority  and  duty  of  teachers.  Such  legisla- 
Rurai  tion  is  greatly  needed  in  all  school  districts, 
schools,  and  especially  in  rural  districts  where  there 
may  be  a  disposition  to  call  the  rightful  authority  of 
the  school  in  question.  Teachers  should  not  be  left  to 
the  alternative  of  exercising  disputed  authority,  or  to 
permit  the  efficiency  of  the  school  to  be  sacrificed. 
Whatever  authority  is  requisite  for  the  highest  effi- 
ciency of  a  school  should  be  generously  accorded  and 
clearly  recognized  by  -all  who  are  directly  interested  in 
its  success. 

CONFIDENCE  AND  COOPERATION. 

Another  important  condition  of  easy  control  is  the 

andj>atrons. 


This  is  perhaps  a  more  vital  condition  than  that  of 
recognized  authority,  and  it  may  be  wanting  even  when 
the  teacher's  power  is  not  questioned.  Stress  has  else- 
where been  laid  on  the  fact  that  the  pupils'  confidence 
in  the  teacher  is  the  basis  of  their  cheerful  acquiescence 
in  his  wishes  (p.  21)  ;  but  confidence  will  not  long 
exist  in  the  schoolroom  if  it  be  wanting  in  the  home. 

It  is  too  common  an  occurrence  for  parents  to  call  in 
question  the  wisdom,  if  not  the  competency,  of  teachers 

Home      in  the  presence  of  their  children,  this  being 

criticism,    often    done    thoughtlessly.     As    a   result   of 

such  home  criticism,  the  children  enter  the  school  with 

their  faith  in  the  teacher  more  or  less  unsettled,  and 


CONDITIONS   OF  EASY  CONTROL.  55 

this  lessens  interest  in  their  work,  thus  impairing  their 
progress ;  and  it  not  infrequently  leads  to  misconduct. 
It  should  be  assumed  by  all  who  are  interested  in  a 
school,  that  the  teacher  is  qualified  for  his  duties,  and 
is  otherwise  worthy  of  esteem.  To  act  on  the  opposite 
assumption  is  to  discredit  the  teacher  in  advance,  and 
this  puts  him  to  a  serious  disadvantage.  Confidence  is 
withheld  at  the  very  time  when  it  is  most  needed,  — 
at  the  opening  of  the  school.  What  the  new  teacher 
needs,  and  is  entitled  to,  is  the  good  will  of  those  under 
whom  and  for  whom  he  is  to  labor ;  and  every  parent 
should  specially  remember  that  confidence  is  due  the 
teacher  until  it  is  forfeited.  Every  pupil  should  be 
sent  to  school  with  the  assurance  that  he  has  a  worthy 
teacher.  This  insures  a  good  beginning,  and  a  good 
beginning  is  the  promise  of  a  good  ending. 

Much  of  the  distrust  which  teachers  are  obliged  to 
meet  and  overcome  is  due  to  the  unwise  manner  in 
which  they  are  selected  and  appointed.  Such  distrust 
is  almost  sure  to  appear  wherever  the  impression  pre- 
vails that  teachers  are  selected,  not  on  the  Appointment 
ground  of  merit  or  fitness,  but  for  other  and  of  Teachers, 
very  different  reasons.  The  personal  canvass  for  a 
position,  which  is  sometimes  unwisely  undertaken,  is 
likely  to  call  out  criticism,  often  disparagement ;  and 
this  occasions  distrust,  often  unjust  it  is  true,  but  none 
the  less  real  and  mischievous.  The  permitting  of  per- 
sonal, political,  nepotic,  social,  or  other  improper  rea- 
sons to  control  the  selection  of  teachers,  is  a  serious 
evil.  Fitnes_s  and  mgrit  alone  should  open  the  door  of 
the  public  school.  The  appointment  of  a  teacher  should 
of  itself  be  an  assurance  of  his  competency  and  fitness 
for  the  position. 


56  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

It  is  not  pnly  true  that  confidence  is. due  the  teacher, 
but  the  more  vital  fact  is  that  the^each^_s]wuld_be 
'ivorth^__of  it.  True  worth  often  wins  when  the  sense 
of  duty  has  failed.  The  teacher  cannot  demand  confi- 
Teacher  dence,  but  he  can  always  deserve  it,  and 
worthy  of  hence  his  chief  concern  is  to  be  and  to  do 
confidence.  wjiat  should  commend  him  to  the  good  opin- 
ion of  pupils  and  patrons.  It  is  not  meant  that  the 
teacher  should  strive  for  popular  approval.  Popularity 
can  never  be  made  the  end  of  effort  without  more  or 
less  sacrifice  of  personal  merit,  as  well  as  the  best 
interests  of  the  school.  Popularity,  like  happiness,  is 
truest  and  most  satisfying  when  it  springs  up  by  the- 
wj^sidej)^  duty.  Nor  can  popular  approval  be  always 
accepted  as  evidence  of  genuine  merit  or  real  success, 
and  this  is  especially  true  in  teaching.  A  pleasing 
address,  patronizing  ways,  the  habit  of  flattery,  and 
other  like  arts,  may  partially  conceal,  for  a  time,  incom- 
petency  and  even  charlatanry  in  the  schoolroom ;  and 
other  more  commendable  ways  may  do  much  to  supple- 
ment a  teacher's  weakness  as  an  instructor ;  but,  in  the 
end,  it  is  genuine  merit  that  tells. 

This  leads  us  back  to  the  fact,  already  considered, 
that  true  confidence  in  a_Jeacher  rests,  primarily  on  es- 
t^HlJPJlJiyiL^L^.^^^-:—  f°r  his  character,,  habits,  and 
1  Teacher's   Jlte.    The  teacher's  office  is  one  that  assumes 
I  worth  as    high  character  in  the  incumbent ;  and  it  is 
I  a  Man.     ^  pOSSjbie  for  a  teacher  to  hold  public  con- 
fidence long,  after  the  public  has  lost  respect  for  him 
as  a  man.     It  is  true  that  a  person  of  immoral  life  may 
be  a  skillful  instructor  in  intellectual  directions,  and  he 
may  even  be  a  martinet  in  discipline  ;  but  such  a  teacher 
cannot  touch  the  hearts  of  his  pupils  with  an  uplifting 


CONDITIONS  OF  EASY  CONTROL.  $? 

power,  nor  can  he  inspire  them  with  a  love  of  what  is 
highest  and  best  in  human  life.  It  is  thus  seen  that 
the  essential  condition  of  the  most  abiding  confidence 
is  also  the  condition  of  the  highest  success  in  govern- 
ment; to  wit,  the  leading  of  the  pupil  to  be  a  law  to 
himself. 

The  teacher  should  also  remember  that  he  is  right- 

_fuHy_  judged  by  a  high  standard)  —  the   highest  in  the 

community,  —  and  that  in  meeting  this  he  is  sure  to 

win  general  approval.     In  morals  the  higher  includes 

the  lower;   and  hence  the  teacher  who   so 

Teacher 

lives  as  jQ_jneel_th£L .approval  of  the  wisest    judged  by 
and  best,  will  have  the  respect   oL  all.     It       Hieh 

— T~— ;; f  .         Standard. 

is  too  common  a  mi&take_-lor-^aung  .teaqh- 
er&JtO-feeL-that-  they— have  the  right-  ±o__Iiye_  according 
tp_jthejr  own  views  of  propriety  withouUregard-to  the 
opinions_of ojjiers^  and  this  position  is  sometimes  sup- 
ported by  an  appeal  to  what  is  known  as  "personal 
liberty." 

But  we  are  not  now  considering  the  question  of  per- 
sonal rights  or  of  personal  liberty,  but  the  conditions  of 
needed  confidence  and  cooperation  in  school  manage- 
ment,—  the  conditions  of  the  highest  success  in  the 
government  of  the  young.  Mr.  A.  as  a  private  citizen, 
and  Mr.  A.  as  the  teacher  of  a  public  school,  do  not 
stand  in '  the  same  relation  to  public  opinion.  The 
teacher  has  all  the  obligations  of  the  ^citizen,  and  more, 
—  those  belonging  specially  to  the  high  office  of  a 
teaqher  of  youth.  \Vhat_hejieeds  is  the  esteem  oL  the 
truest~and  best*  and,  to  secure  this,  he  must  comply 
with  the  jiecessary  conditions.  ^Scores  ofjteachers  are 
failing  because, oLJhaMts  an^pj^gtjggsjwbirh  offend  th^ 
moral  judgment  , of  those  whosis  ^good  opinion  they 


$8  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

greatly  need.  The  Pauline  principle,  "If  meat  make 
my  brother  to  offend,  I  will  eat  no  flesh,"  is  a  safe  one 
for  the  teacher. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  add,  much  less  to  urge,  that 

the  teacher  jieeils_  the  hearty  cooperation  of  school  ,ojji- 

Coopera-     cers  ancj  patrojis.     This  is  one  of  those  oft- 

tion.       attested  facts   of  school  experience  that  no 

longer  needs  proof.     It  is,  however,  important  for  the 

teacher  to  see  that  such  cooperation  will  largely  depend 

on  the  confidence  which  he  inspires  and  wins.     As  con- 

ditions   of  easy   discipline,  confidence  and  cooperation 

are  practically  one ;  and  that  one  is  confidence,  though 

^confidence  may  not  always  secure  cooperation. 

ATTRACTIVE  SCHOOLROOM  AND  SURROUNDINGS. 

An  important  physical  condition  of  easy  control  \s_q 
pleasant  schoolroom  and  attractive  surroundings. 

The  connection  between  physical  environment  and 
human  conduct  is  very  intimate.  Other  things  equal, 

Physical     t^ie  more  attractive  one's  surroundings,  the 

Environ-  higher  will  be  his  aspirations,  and  the  easier 
ment.  tne^r  attainment.  It  is  not  meant  that  phys- 
ical environment  determines  conduct  or  character;  for 
history  is  full  of  examples  of  high  achievement  without 
a  favoring  environment,  and  also  of  sad  failures  with 
the  most  helpful  surroundings.  But  while  human  life 
has  its  causal  principle  within  the  individual,  its  activ- 
ity is  greatly  influenced  by  external  conditions.  It  is 
doubtless  within  the  truth  to  assert  that  the  more 
favorable  one's  environment,  the  easier  will  be  his  suc- 
cess in  right  living,  and  this  is  specially  true  in  child- 
hood. All  thoughtful  parents  and  teachers  recognize 


CONDITIONS   OF  EASY  CONTROL.  59 

the  importance  of  right  influences  in  the  training  of 
the  young,  but  few  comparatively  attach  sufficient 
importance  to  attractive  and  helpful  physical  condi- 
tions. 

The  beneficent  influence  of  a  beautiful  schoolroom 
has  been  experienced  by  many  a  teacher.  Possibly  a 
few  of  the  readers  of  these  pages  will  recall  Beautiful 
the  happy  change  that  came  over  the  old  schooi- 
backwoods  school  when  the  approach  of 
summer  permitted  the  transforming  of  the  rude  hovel, 
in  which  "school  was  kept,"  into  a  bower  of  beauty. 
How  pleasant  was  the  task  of  cutting  the  green 
branches  from  the  trees  near  at  hand,  and  filling  up  the 
old  wide-mouthed  fireplace,  and  covering  the  rafters 
with  living  green,  and  then  flecking  all  with  boughs  of 
the  Juneberry,  laden  with  white  blossoms !  As  beauty 
came  into  the  humble  school,  how  mischief  went  out ! 
Even  the  rude  bouquet  of  wild  flowers  in  the  rusty  tin 
cup  on  the  teacher's  table  was  an  invitation  to  beauti- 
ful conduct.  How  easy  were  the  lessons,  and  how 
happily  all  responded  to  the  teacher's  wishes ! 

In  his  early  experience  as  a  teacher,  the  writer  had 
the  privilege  of  transferring  a  high  school l  from  an  old 
and  dilapidated  schoolhouse  to  one  of  the  Author's 
most  beautiful  school  buildings  then  in  the  **?«"««. 
country.  He  had  an  orderly  and  well-disposed  school 
in  the  old  house;  but  the  change  that  attended  the 
removal  to  the  new  building,  with  its  elegant  furniture, 
beautiful  pictures  on  the  walls,  etc.,  was  marked  and 
happy.  For  months  the  great  school  ran  as  smoothly 
as  the  clock  that  faced  the  teacher,  there  being  not 
even  an  occasion  for  reproof.  The  spirit  of  the  school 

1  Cleveland  Central  High  School. 


60  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

responded  to  the  beauty  of  its  new  surroundings,  and 
disorder  seemed  out  of  place.  This  is  not  an  excep- 
tional experience.  The  removal  of  a  school  to  a  new 
building  has  transformed  many  a  school,  and  many  a 
teacher  has  thus  been  made  happy.  On  the  con- 
.  trary,  a  dirty,  dingy,  and  dilapidated  schoolhouse  is  a 
constant  temptation  not  only  to  disorder,  but  to  low 
aims. 

A  State  Superintendent  once  visited  a  beautiful  vil- 
lage to  give  an  address.  The  people  lived  in  pleasant 
striking  homes,  bright  with  paint,  and  surrounded 
illustration.  w[th  well-kept  grounds,  ornamented  with 
shrubbery  and  flowers.  He  expected  to  find  a  school- 
house  in  harmony  with  the  thrift  and  taste  of  the  peo- 
ple; but,  to  his  surprise,  the  public  school  occupied  a 
dilapidated  wooden  structure  in  an  open  lot,  without 
shrub  or  tree  for  ornament  or  shade.  On  reaching  the 
front  porch,  he  found  the  doors  and  casements  cut  and 
otherwise  disfigured  with  obscenity,  and,  on  entering, 
he  found  the  rooms  equally  disgraceful.  The  floors 
were  stained  with  ink  and  dirty ;  the  curtains,  if  any,  in 
tatters ;  the  outline  maps  torn  and  dirty ;  and  the  desks 
staring  with  obscene  words  and  figures.  He  called  the 
attention  of  the  members  of  the  school  board,  who  were 
with  him,  to  the  desks,  and  entered  an  earnest  protest 
against  their  permitting  innocent  children  to  occupy 
such  seats.  He  was  met  by  the  remark,  "  It  is  no  use 
to  put  nice  furniture  into  a  schoolhouse  in  this  town ; 
we  have  the  worst  set  of  boys  in  the  country."  The 
superintendent  suggested  that  the  obscene  schoolhouse 
might  be  somewhat  responsible  for  the  depravity  of  the 
boys,  and  he  earnestly  urged  that  the  place  be  purified, 
—  if  necessary,  by  fire ! 


CONDITIONS   OF  EASY  CONTROL.  6 1 

A  few  weeks  later  this  same  superintendent  visited 
another  village  1  to  give  an  address  on  the  occasion  of 
the  graduation  of  a  class  from  the  high  Another 
school.  The  school  building,  a  plain  brick  "^ration, 
structure,  occupied  an  entire  square  near  the  center  of 
the  town.  The  lot  was  surrounded  by  double  rows  of 
shade  trees,  and  the  grounds  in  front  were  neatly  laid 
out,  with  winding  walks  from  gates  to  doorways,  and 
tastefully  ornamented  with  shrubbery  and  flowers,  —  all 
as  well  kept  as  the  grounds  of  a  private  residence.  On 
entering  the  building,  he  found  everything  in  keeping 
with  the  beautiful  exterior.  The  floors  were  clean,  the 
stoves  polished,  the  curtains  and  maps  in  place  and  in 
good  condition,  pictures  on  the  walls,  flowers  in  the 
windows,  desks  nearly  as  good  as  when  new  fifteen 
years  before,  and  the  halls  from  the  first  to  the  third 
floors  apparently  untouched  by  pencil  or  knife.  On 
the  third  floor  was  a  large  and  well-used  library,  and 
a  fine  collection  of  minerals  and  other  natural-history 
specimens,  —  all  the  results  of  the  efforts  of  teachers 
and  pupils. 

On  inquiry  it  was  learned  that  the  people  took  great 
pride  in  their  schools,  and  that  for  years  there  had  been 
very  few  cases  of  punishment,  —  a  somewhat  unusual 
experience  at  that  day.  It  did  not  require  the  gift  of 
prophecy  to  see  that  the  youth  here  schooled  would,  as 
a  result  of  these  beautiful  surroundings,  have  an  extra 
picture  on  the  wall  of  their  homes,  howsoever  humble, 
an  extra  rosebush  in  the  yard,  and  higher  virtue  in 
the  life. 

These  several  illustrations  show,  more  forcibly  than 
formal  directions,  what  is  needed  to  meet  the  condition 

1  Troy,  O. ;  William  N.  Edwards,  superintendent. 


62  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

of  easy  discipline,  now  under  consideration.     They  give 

assurance  that  the  time  and  care  spent  in  making  the 

Beautifying  surroundings    of    the    school    pleasant    and 

school-     attractive  will  come  back  to  the  teacher  in 

rooms,  increased  interest  and  application  in  study, 
and  in  improved  order.  In  no  place  has  a  beautiful 
picture  more  influence  for  good  than  on  the  walls  of 
an  elementary  school,  and  how  easy  it  now  is  for  an 
earnest  teacher  to  secure  pictures  for  this  purpose ! 
Engravings,  chromos,  and  other  pictures  are  within  the 
easy  reach  of  nearly  every  school  in  the  country ;  and 
the  need  of  suitable  frames  can  be  met  by  making  rustic 
frames,  —  an  art  that  is  not  beyond  the  skill  of  pupils, 
with  a  little  assistance. 

There  are  many  school  districts  in  which  the  tempo- 
rary loan  of  pictures  by  the  patrons  of  the  school  can 

Pictures  ke  secured  by  simply  awakening  an  interest 
easily  among  the  pupils.  The  wall  back  of  the 

secured,  teacher's  table  in  a  rural  school  was  thus 
adorned  with  appropriate  pictures  during  an  entire 
school  session.  At  the  beginning  of  each  month,  a 
new  picture  took  the  place  of  the  one  that  had  hung 
there  the  previous  month,  and  each  successive  picture 
awakened  a  new  interest. 

It  seems  proper  to  add  that  care  should  be  taken 
in  selecting  pictures  for  a  school.  It  is  easy  to  dis- 

carein     figure  a  schoolroom  with  daubs  of  color  that 

selection.  jencj  no  charm,  but  rather  dull  the  aesthetic 
sense  and  vitiate  the  taste,  —  pictures  that  have  neither 
beauty  nor  story.  The  schoolroom  is  not  the  place 
for  the  portraits  of  men  or  women  of  immoral  life. 
Goodness  is  more  important  here  than  fame  or  station. 
The  school  should  keep  in  the  eyes  of  its  pupils,  as 


CONDITIONS   OF  EASY  CONTROL.  63 

well   as   in   their    hearts,    the   beautiful    sentiment   of 

Tennyson,  — 

"  Howe'er  it  be,  it  seems  to  me, 
'Tis  only  noble  to  be  good." 

To  a  child  goodness  should  ever  appear  as  the  only  true 
greatness. 

Much  may  also  be  done  in  this  direction  by  adorn- 
ing the  unused    portions   of   blackboards  with   crayon 
drawings   and   sketches ;  and,  since   stencils  Blackboard 
remove  the  necessity  of  high  skill  in  draw-     Pictures, 
ing,  no  teacher  needs  to  neglect  this  means  of  adding 
to  the  attractiveness  of  the  schoolroom. 

The  observance  of  Arbor  Day  in  recent  years  has 
done  much  to  awaken  an  interest  in  the  planting  of 
trees  and  shrubbery  in  school  grounds. 

Arbor  Day. 

There  are  now  thousands  of  school  grounds 
thus  ornamented,  and  the  good  work  is  widening, 
though  sometimes  perverted  by  demonstrations  more 
showy  than  fruitful.1  It  is  hoped  that  it  may  soon 
reach,  not  only  the  school  premises  in  cities  and  towns, 
but  the  school  grounds  "  at  the  cross-roads  "  and  on  the 
hillsides.  The  school  should  gratify  the  love  of  chil- 
dren for  trees  and  flowers. 

There  is  also  a  gratifying  improvement  in  the  archi- 
tectural appearance  of  our  schoolhouses.    The  old  "  box  " 
house,   the  unsightly  representative   of   un-  Architectur. 
adorned    economy,   is    disappearing,   and    its  ai  improve, 
successor    has    promising    signs   of    growing       ment' 
architectural  taste.     The  schoolhouse  should  represent 
at  least  the  average  taste  and  comfort  of  the  community. 

1  This  is  true  where  the  day  is  devoted  to  outdoor  parade,  while  the 
school  premises  are  left  without  tree  or  shrub.  A  school  celebration  of 
Arbor  Day  should  not  overlook  the  school  grounds. 


64  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

But  neither  pictures,  nor  shrubbery,  nor  architectural 
appearance,  can  take  the  place  of  cleanliness  and  neat- 
ness. No  beauty  of  adorning  can  offset  the 
bad  influence  of  dingy  walls ;  curtains  and 
maps  soiled  and  hung  awry ;  a  dirty  floor,  covered  with 
ink  spots  and  strewn  with  litter ;  a  rusty  and  foul  stove ; 
text-books  torn  and  disfigured  with  unseemly  marks ; 
desks  in  disorder,  etc.  Cleanliness  is  not  only  next  to 
godliness,  as  the  old  proverb  puts  it,  but  cleanliness 
makes  for  godliness  (p.  116).  There  is  a  very  close 
connection  between  clean  hands  and  faces  and  a  pure 
heart,  and  there  is  a  like  connection  between  neatness 
in  person  and  surroundings  and  purity  and  manliness  in 
the  life.  Many  school  outhouses  are  vile  and  shameful 
—  an  evil  demanding  prompt  correction. 

The  influence  of  neatness  in  work  is  also  worthy  of 
notice  here.  The  habit  of  scribbling  is  closely  associ- 
ated with  careless  conduct,  and,  on  the  contrary,  the 
habitual  exercise  of  care  in  one's  work  makes  like  care 
as  to  conduct  easy.  Neatness  and  order  in  work  are 
closely  allied  to  virtue  in  conduct. 

PROPER  HEATING  AND  VENTILATION. 

Another  physical  condition  of  easy  control,  worthy  of 
consideration  here,  is  proper  heating  and  ventilation. 

The  connection  between  the  temperature  of  a  school- 
room and  the  order  and  application  of  the  pupils  is  very 

influence  c^ose-  School  experience  shows  that  pupils 
of  Temper-  cannot  do  their  work  quietly  and  successfully 

ature.  wnen  suffering  from  cold,  or  depressed  by 
excessive  heat.  Too  high  or  too  low  a  temperature 
causes  restlessness,  distracts  attention,  and  lessens  ap- 


CONDITIONS   OF  EASY  CONTROL.  65 

plication.  Restlessness  is  perhaps  more  obvious  when 
the  temperature  is  low  than  when  it  is  high,  but  a  high 
temperature  interferes  with  application  more  than  a 
moderately  low  temperature.  The  attempt  to  read  or 
write  in  a  room  heated  to  80°  Fahrenheit  will  verify 
this  statement.  It  requires  but  a  few  minutes  in  such 
a  temperature  to  cause  dullness,  lassitude,  and  ner- 
vous irritation,  if  not  headache.  The  fact  that  a  high 
temperature  is  not  favorable  to  intellectual  activity 
is  attested  by  the  almost  universal  custom  of  closing 
educational  institutions  during  the  heat  of  summer. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  respecting  the 
proper  temperature  of  a  schoolroom,  the  temperatures 
recommended  ranging  from  66°  to  72°;  68°  proper  Tem- 
being,  perhaps,  the  standard  most  frequently  perature. 
prescribed  by  boards  of  education.  This  would  perhaps 
be  a  sufficiently  high  temperature  at,  say,  less  than  five 
feet  from  the  floor,  were  all  the  pupils  in  the  room 
properly  clothed;  but  the  writer's  observations  in  three 
cities  show  that  there  are  few  public  schools  in  which 
this  condition  exists.  All  pupils  are  not  properly 
clothed,  much  less  equally  clothed.  Some  boys  wear 
underclothing ;  others  do  not.  Some  wear  woolen  un- 
derclothing, others  cotton,  etc.  Girls,  as  a  rule,  are  not 
as  warmly  clothed  as  boys ;  and,  as  a  result,  they  need 
an  indoor  temperature  a  little  higher  than  boys.  All 
things  considered,  the  proper  temperature  of  a  school- 
room is  about  70°  at  five  feet  from  the  floor;  and  it 
should  not  be  permitted  to  rise  above  72°,  or  fall 
below  68°. 

There  are  practical    difficulties    in   ascertaining  the 
real   temperature   of    a  schoolroom.     For   obvious  rea- 
sons, the  teacher  should  not  depend  on  his  own  feel- 
5 


66  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

ings.  He  may  be  nearer  the  stove  or  register  than 
most  of  the  pupils ;  may  not  be  so  much  exposed  to 
currents  of  cold  air  near  the  floor,  etc. ;  and,  besides,  a 
live  teacher  is  physically  more  active  than  his  pupils  — 
at  least  his  activity  is  more  continuous. 

The   temperature    of    every   schoolroom    should   be 

regulated  by  a  good  thermometer,  and  this  should  be 

Thermomc-  hung,  and  also  observed,  with  great  care.     It 

ter.        should  be  hung  about  five  feet  from  the  floor, 

at  some  distance  from  the  door,  and  also  from  the  stove 

or  register,  and,  when  practicable,  on  an  inner  wall. 

A  thermometer  hung  higher  than  five  feet  from  the 
floor  will  indicate  a  higher  temperature  than  when 
hung  nearer  the  floor  (the  higher  the  thermometer, 
the  higher  the  temperature),  and  a  thermometer  hung 
on  an  inner  wall  will  show  in  winter  a  higher  tempera- 
ture than  when  hung  on  an  outer  wall;  and  the  re- 
verse will  be  true  in  summer. 

It  has  been  found  an  excellent  plan  to  have  some 
pupil,  assigned  to  this  duty,  observe  the  temperature 

Record  of    as  indicated  by  the  thermometer,  say,  every 

Tempera-  half  hour,  and  record  the  same  on  the  black- 
ture*  board  or  a  large  slate.  This  not  only  assists 
the  teacher  in  preserving  an  equable  temperature,  but 
it  affords  pupils  a  valuable  practice  in  making  obser- 
vations. Pupils  may  serve  as  observers  a  week  each 
without  serious  interference  with  their  other  duties. 

Closely  connected  with  heating  is  ventilation,  —  the 

supplying   of   the    schoolroom    with    needed    pure   air. 

This  is  not  the  proper  place  to  consider  the 

Ventilation.  111 

relations  of  ventilation  to  health,  or  the  sani- 
tary reasons  for  careful  attention  to  this  subject.     Our 


CONDITIONS  OF  EASY  CONTROL.  67 

present  purpose  is  more  specially  limited  to  a  consider- 
ation of  its  relation  to  the  order  of  the  school  and  its 
easy  control. 

Pure  air  promotes  both  physical  and  moral  vigor. 
Impure  air  lowers  the  energy  of  the  body,  and  ener- 
vates the  will.  It  occasions  such  physical  dis-  Effects  of 
comforts  as  dullness,  drowsiness,  headache,  impure  Air. 
nervousness,  etc.,  and  these  cause  pupils  to  be  listless, 
restless,  and  irritable ;  and  these  unhappy  effects  are 
shared  by  the  teacher.  These  results  are  matters  of 
too  common  experience  to  call  for  a  full  scientific  ex- 
planation in  this  connection.  It  must  suffice  to  say 
briefly  that  respiration  exhausts  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
and  expels  from  the  lungs  with  every  breath  carbonic- 
acid  gas,  and  that  this  is  attended  with  impure  exhala- 
tions from  the  body.  This  loss  of  oxygen  and  increase 
of  carbonic-acid  gas,  with  other  exhaled  impurities,  soon 
render  the  air  unfit  to  meet  the  vital  needs  of  the  body, 
and  the  evil  effects  named  above  follow. 

In  a  schoolroom   filled  with  pupils,  this  process  of 
vitiation  is  rapid,  and  the  only  remedy  is  the  admission 
of  fresh  air  and  the  removal  of  the  vitiated     Remedy 
air ;  and,  to  these  ends,  there  must  be  secured      sought, 
a  flow  of  fresh  air  into  the  room,  and  a  flow  of  the 
impure  or  vitiated  air  from  the  room.     The  object  of 
ventilation  is  to  secure  these  results. 

The  ventilation  of  school  buildings  has  received  much 
attention  of  late  years,  and  many  buildings  are  now 
heated  and  ventilated  in  a  satisfactory  man-  ventilation 
ner ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  common  observa-    of  schooi- 
tion  that  improved  ventilation  has  made  the      house8- 
discipline  of  the  schools  easier.     But  the  great  majority 
of  school  buildings  are  still  without  improved  appliances 


68  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

for  ventilation,  the  windows  and  doors  being  the  only 
means  for  securing  needed  fresh  air ;  and  this  is  gener- 
ally true  of  the  smaller  schoolhouses  in  country  districts. 

It  is  surprising,  that  after  all  that  has  been  said  and 

written   on  the   subject,   and    all    the    decisive    experi- 

surprising   ments  that  have  been  made,  boards  of  edu- 

Practice.  cation,  even  in  cities,  are  still  erecting  large 
buildings  without  using  any  approved  system  of  venti- 
lation. Many  school  boards  have  not  yet  learned  that 
unheated  ventilating  shafts  or  ducts  are  useless,  —  that 
foul  air  is  not  sufficiently  anxious  to  get  out  of  school- 
rooms to  force  itself  up  a  cold  air-duct  against  the 
force  of  gravity ! 

It  is  perhaps  even  more  surprising,  that  so  few  school 
boards  have  any  knowledge  of  the  ventilating  stove,  — 
Ventilating  a  simple  and  inexpensive  device  for  heating 

stoves.  and  ventilating  small  schoolhouses  and  sepa- 
rate rooms.  It  is  now  nearly  forty  years  since  the 
ventilating  stove  was  invented,  and  it  has  since  been 
greatly  improved ;  and  yet  few  rural  schoolhouses  are 
supplied  with  it.  School  boards  are  still  buying  com- 
mon stoves,  when  a  small  additional  expense  would 
secure  an  improved  ventilating  stove  with  all  necessary 
appliances  for  successful  ventilation.  The  principle  and 
construction  of  the  ventilating  stove,  whatever  may  be 
the  pattern,  is  so  simple  that  we  feel  justified  in 
attempting  to  give  a  description. 

The  stove  proper  is  incased  in  a  manner  similar 
to  a  hot-air  furnace,  with  openings  at  the  top ;  and 

construe-    this  casing  opens  at  the  floor  into  a  fresh- 

tion-        air  duct,  extending  under  the  floor  to   and 

through  the  outer  wall,  the  opening  being  protected 

by  a  grate.     When  there  is  fire  in  the  stove,  the  in- 


CONDITIONS   OF  EASY  CONTROL.  69 

closed  air  surrounding  it  is  heated,  and  rises,  passing 
out  into  the  room;  and  this  "draws  in"  fresh  air  from 
the  outside,  which,  as  it  passes  around  the  stove,  is  in 
turn  heated,  and  rises,  passing  out  of  the  top  openings. 

Thus  a  constant  current  of  warm,  fresh  air  is  flow- 
ing into  the   schoolroom.     Meanwhile  the  draught   of 
the  stove  is  taking  a  constant  current  of  air  out  of  the 
room,  and  thus  a  complete  circulation  of  air  Circulation 
is  maintained ;    warm  fresh  air  coming  into      of  Air 
the  room,  and  foul  or  vitiated  air  passing  out.     secured- 
Experiments  show  that  the  entering  warm  air  does  not 
settle  to  the  floor  near  the  stove,  but  passes  as  an  upper 
current  to  the  opposite  walls  of  the  room,  where  it  is 
deflected  downward,  and  returns  to  the  stove  as  a  floor 
current,  thus  keeping  the  feet  and  limbs  of  the  pupils 
warm. 

But  it  is  found  that  the  draught  of  the  stove  is  not 
sufficient,  except  in  small  rooms  with  a  few  pupils,  to 
take  the  requisite  quantity  of  air  from  the  room,  the 
return  or  floor  current  being  too  feeble.  This  may 
be  successfully  remedied  by  supplementing  the  stove 
draught  by  an  escape-air  opening  at  the  floor,  Escape- Air- 
and  entering  a  heated  chimney  or  duct.  This  Duct- 
is  easily  effected  by  continuing  the  chimney  duct  to  the 
floor,  and  putting  in  the  wall  at  the  bottom  a  register, 
the  register  ordinarily  used  to  admit  hot  air  from  a 
furnace  answering  the  purpose  well.  The  heat  from 
the  stove  warms  the  chimney  duct,  and  thus  causes  the 
needed  upward  draught  from  the  room.  It  is  well  to 
put  the  stove  a  few  feet  from  the  chimney.  The 
accompanying  cut  (p.  70)  shows  the  arrangement. 

In  case  the  current  of  air  entering  the  chimney  at 
the  floor  lessens  too  much  the  draught  of  the  stove  in 


7O  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

the  morning,  the  escape-air  register  can  be  kept  closed 
until  after  the  assembling  of  the  school,  and  then  opened. 
It  is  solely  for  ventilation,  and  so  need  not  be  open 
except  when  ventilation  is  needed.  The  chimney  duct 
may,  if  preferred,  be  divided  by  a  thin  sheet  of  galva- 
nized iron,  thus  separating  the  ventilating  duct  from 
the  stove  duct,  the  hot  air  from  the  stove  heating  the 
sheet-iron  division,  and  thus  the  ventilating  duct.  This 


sheet-iron  division  is,  however,  not  necessary,  since  the 
ventilating  duct  can  open,  as  above  stated,  directly  into 
the  chimney  shaft,  if  it  be  made  secure  against  fire  at 
the  floor. 

But  the  best  plan  for  securing  the  needed  outflow 

of  vitiated  air  is  to  put  a  fireplace  or  grate  in  place  of 

ideal  ven-    the  register  at  the  bottom  of  the  chimney 

tiiation.  duct.  This  will  always  ventilate  the  room, 
large  or  small,  and  a  small  fire  will  answer  the  purpose. 
A  ventilating  stove  to  supply  a  schoolroom  with  warm 


CONDITIONS   OF  EASY  CONTROL.  7 1 

fresh  air,  and  a  fireplace  or  grate  to  remove  vitiated  air, 
is  an  ideal  system  of  heating  and  ventilation.  No  ex- 
pensive system  excels  it  in  efficiency ;  and  all  systems, 
depending  on  heat  to  produce  the  desired  circulation, 
embody  its  principle.  It  is  the  plan  for  separate  rooms 
and  small  schoolhouses.  The  amount  of  fuel  required 
for  both  stove  and  grate  is  not  equal  to  that  consumed 
by  an  ordinary  stove  with  open-window  ventilation; 
while  the  extra  labor  necessitated  by  the  small  fire  in 
the  grate  is  offset  many  fold  by  the  health  and  comfort 
thus  secured.1  There  is  certainly  no  excuse  for  poorly 
ventilated  schoolrooms. 

It  is  not,  however,  sufficient  to  describe  and  commend 
improved  plans  for  heating  and  ventilating  schoolrooms. 
The  sad  fact  is  that  thousands  of  schools  are  still 
occupying  rooms  heated  by  ordinary  stoves,  and  with 
no  means,  except  the  windows,  for  ventilation.  What 
can  be  done  to  afford  some  relief  to  teachers  and  pupils 
in  these  schools  ? 

It  is  first  to  be  noted  that  the  usual  attempt  to  ven- 
tilate schoolrooms  by  means  of  the  windows  is  attended 
with   serious    evils.     A   competent    observer    has   ex- 
pressed the  fear  that  the  open  window  is  doing     Window 
more  harm  in  our  schools  than  impure  air,  as  Ventilation 
great  as  is  the  mischief  done  by  the  latter.    Dangerou«- 
"Though  foul  air,"  says  Dr.  Angus  Smith,  "is  a  slow 
poison,  we  must  not  forget  that  a  blast  of  cold  air  may 
slay  like  a  sword."     Few  schoolrooms  are  large  enough  to 
permit  the  seating  of  all  the  pupils  at  a  suitable  distance 
from  windows,  and  in  most  schoolrooms  a  considerable 

1  A  coal-oil  lamp  back  of  the  register,  and  kept  burning  during  school 
hours,  may  take  the  place  of  the  grate  fire.  The  essential  thing  is  a 
heated  ventilating  duct  with  large  opening  at  the  floor. 


72  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

number  of  pupils  necessarily  sit  near  windows.  The 
raising  or  lowering  of  the  sash  for  ventilation  exposes 
the  pupils  sitting  near,  often  thinly  clad,  to  currents  of 
cold  air,  thus  occasioning  colds,  catarrhal  and  bronchial 
troubles,  pneumonia,  earache,  neuralgia,  etc.  The 
physical  ills  thus  caused  are  much  greater  than  teachers 
as  a  class  even  suspect.1  The  attending  discomfort,  even 
when  health  is  not  endangered,  is  the  source  of  much 
restlessness,  inattention,  and  disorder. 

The  effective  ventilation  of  a  schoolroom  by  means 

of  windows  and  doors  is  a  very  difficult  undertaking; 

and  the  most  that  can  be  done,  in  this  connection,  is  to 

su    estions  ^^  ^  ^ew  suggesti°ns  for  the  lessening  of  the 

respecting    evils  which  usually  attend  it. 

window  i.  As  a  rule,  the  windows  should  not  be 
3'  lowered  or  raised  in  cool  weather  on  the 
windward  side  of  the  room,  especially  when  there  is 
wind,  even  slight.  North  windows  should  not  be 
opened  when  there  is  a  north  wind,  nor  east  windows 
when  there  is  an  east  wind,  etc. 

2.  It  is  better  usually  to  lower  windows  from  the  top 
than  to  raise  them  from  the  bottom :  and  it  is  better  to 
lower  several  windows,  each  a  little,  than  to  open  one 
window  much,  unless  the  window  thus  opened  is  near 
the  stove  or  register,  and  at  a  good  distance  from  the 
nearest  pupils. 

1  In  visiting  schools,  the  writer  has  frequently  found  delicate  children 
sitting  in  window  draughts  that  evidently  endangered  their  health,  and 
again  and  again  he  has  called  the  attention  of  teachers  to  such  exposures. 
He  has  known  many  cases  of  sore  throat,  earache,  neuralgia,  severe  colds, 
and  even  pneumonia,  arising  from  open-window  exposures  in  school.  An 
intelligent  mother  once  said  to  him  that  two  of  her  children  had  suffered 
so  much  from  open-window  exposures,  that  she  was  obliged  to  take  them 
out  of  school.  The  teacher  was  a  crank  on  the  subject  of  ventilation. 


CONDITIONS  OF  EASY  CONTROL.  73 

3.  The  lower  sash  may  be  raised,  and  a  closely  fitting 
board,  say  three  to  five    inches  wide,  placed  under  it. 
This  will    leave  a  narrow  opening  between  the    lower 
part  of  the  upper  sash  and  the  upper  part  of  the  lower 
sash ;  and  the  air  that  enters  the  room  passes  upward 
between  the  panes  of    glass,  and  flows  as  an    upward 
current  into  the  room.     This  device  is  quite  satisfactory 
when    only  a    small    quantity  of  fresh    air    is    needed. 
When  more  air  is  required,  the  board  under  the  lower 
sash  of  windows  distant  from  pupils  may  be  removed 
and  placed,  properly  supported,  in  front  of  the  opening, 
an  inch  or  so  distant  from  the  sash.     The  board  should 
be  some  wider  than  the  opening,  thus  giving  an  upward 
movement   to  the    entering  air.     Instead  of    removing 
the  board,  as  above  suggested,  holes  may  be  made  in 
it,  and  tin   tubes  extending   upward   inserted.     These 
tubes  will  give  the  entering  air  an  upward  movement, 
and  thus  cause  it  to  pass  above  the  pupils. 

4.  The   best   device   for   window  ventilation    is   to 
attach  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  upper  sash  a  thin  board, 
or  strip  of  tin,  say  from  four  to  six  inches  wide,  at  such 
an  angle  as  will  cause  the  current  of  air  which  enters 
when    the    sash    is    lowered,  to    flow  upward  into    the 
room,  thus  passing  over  the  heads  of  the  nearest  pupils, 
and  mingling  somewhat  with  the  warm  air  of  the  room 
before    descending  to    the  floor.     Currents    of   air  are 
easily  directed,  and   this    simple   device    prevents   the 
entering  cold  air  from  falling,  like   a  cataract,  on  the 
heads  of  the  pupils  who  sit  near  the  window. 

In  case  the  attached  strip  prevents  the  closing  of  the 
upper  sash,  when  the  opening  is  not  needed  for  ventila- 
tion, the  strip  may  be  attached  by  means  of  hinges, 
and  raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure  by  means  of  a  cord  or 


74 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


pulley,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  cut.  The  ex- 
pense involved  in  attaching  these  improved  air  directors 
(the  writer's  invention)  to  the  windows  of  a  schoolroom 
is  very  small. 

The  slight  inflow  of  air  between  the  upper  and  the 
lower  window  sash  may  be  easily  prevented,  if  desira- 


\   Current  cfAtr 


SKETCH  SHOWING 

METHOD  OF 

ATTACHING  STRIP 

TO  SASH 


(fcrdl 


Any  desired  position 
or  Angle  of  Strip  may 
be  obtained  byuseof 
the  Cord  and  Pulley 


SKETCH  SHOWING 
SASH  OPEN 


SKETCH  SHOWJNQ 
SASH  CLOSED 


ble,  by  placing  a  strip  of  tin  or  rubber,  or  even  paste- 
board, on  the  upper  edge  of  the  lower  window  sash,  so 
adjusted  as  to  touch  the  panes  of  glass  in  the  upper 
window  sash. 

5.  The  above  devices  may  be  inadequate  in  a  crowded 
schoolroom  ;  and,  as  a  last  resort,  it  is  suggested  that 
needed  change  of  air  be  secured  by  opening  the  win- 
dows, and  meanwhile  giving  the  pupils  active  physical 


CONDITIONS  OF  EASY  CONTROL.  .  ?$ 

exercise,  —  gymnastic  or  calisthenic.  Five  minutes 
thus  spent  at  the  close  of  each  hour  will  do  much  to 
effect  a  change  of  air,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  pupils 
will  be  given  needed  physical  relief. 


PROPER  LIGHTING. 

Another  physical  condition  of  easy  discipline  is  the 
proper  lighting  of  the  schoolroom. 

It  is  now  generally  agreed  that  the  windows  of  a 
schoolroom  should  be  at  the  left  of  the  pupils,  and  that 
the  pupils  when  seated  should  face  a  blank,  position  of 
or  dead,  wall.  The  facing  of  windows  in  windows, 
school  often  produces  not  only  pain  in  the  eyes  and 
headache,  but  also  a  general  nervous  irritation,  not  to 
mention  possible  injury  to  sight.  It  results  in  rest- 
lessness, neglect  of  study,  and,  not  infrequently,  in 
disorder.  The  best  sanitary  condition  for  the  eye 
thus  becomes  the  best  condition  for  good  order  and 
application. 

The  importance  of  the  proper  lighting  of  school- 
rooms formerly  received  little  attention,  and,  as  a  result, 
there  are  few  schoolrooms  that  have  windows  Arranging 
only  on  one  side.  Most  schoolrooms  have  of  Seats- 
windows  on  two  sides,  and  many  on  three  sides,  and  in 
such  rooms  proper  lighting  is  not  easily  secured.  When 
practicable,  the  seats  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  bring 
the  windows  at  the  left  and  back  of  the  pupils ;  and 
the  windows  at  the  right  and  in  front,  if  any,  should  be 
shaded.  If  necessary  to  admit  some  light  from  the 
right  or  in  front,  the  windows  should  be  shaded  with  a 
white  or  thin  buff  curtain.  In  no  case  should  pupils 
be  permitted  to  sit  facing  a  bright  sunlight. 


/6  .  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Mr.  A.  P.  Marble,  superintendent  of  schools,  Worces- 
Best  Expe-  ter,  Mass.,  has  put  into  a  few  sentences  the 
nence.     results  of  the  best  experience  in  the  lighting 
of  schoolrooms.     He  says,  — 

"  It  is  agreed  by  an  overwhelming  weight  of  evidence  that  the 
best  light  for  a  schoolroom  is  exclusively  on  the  side  of  the  room 
to  the  left  of  the  pupils ;  that  the  windows  should  be  massed  as 
closely  as  safe  construction  will  allow  along  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
side  ;  that  the  windows  should  be  square  at  the  top  (not  circular), 
and  extend  quite  to  the  ceiling,  and  that  the  windowsill  should  be 
higher  than  the  tops  of  the  pupils'  desks ;  that  the  seat  farthest  from 
the  windows  should  be  about  twice  the  distance  from  the  tops  of 
the  desks  to  the  ceiling,  or,  in  general,  once  and  a  half  the  height 
of  the  room  ;  that,  when  necessary  to  shut  off  a  part  of  the  light, 
the  lower  part  of  the  window,  and  never  the  top  or  sides,  should  be 
shaded ;  that  shades  should  therefore  always  roll  from  the  bottom, 
and,  where  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  enter  the  room,  white  or  very 
light  curtains  should  roll  from  the  top  merely  to  soften  but  never 
to  shut  out  the  light,  and,  if  blinds  are  used,  they  should  be  made 
in  sections,  and  slide  up  and  down ;  and  that  blackboards  should 
never  be  placed  between  windows.  The  walls  and  ceiling  of  the 
room  should  be  tinted  a  light  pearl,  lavender,  or  brown  color, 
rather  than  a  darker  shade,  or  any  shade  of  yellow  ;  and  the  shades 
(rolling  from  the  bottom)  should  be  of  a  similar  color,  or  of  a 
greenish  tint.  The  shades  of  yellow  for  this  purpose  are  quite 
common,  but  they  are  not  good  for  the  eyes."  —  Annual  Report,} 
1891,  p.  30. 

PROPER  SEATS  AND  DESKS. 

Another  condition  of  easy  control  is  proper  seats  and 
desks. 

A  common  source  of  discomfort  in  school  is  the  use 
of  seats  and  desks  not  properly  adapted  to  the  size  of 

TOO  High  the  pupils.  The  most  frequent  mistake  in 
seats.  this  direction,  especially  in  schools  contain- 
ing primary  pupils,  is  the  use  of  seats  too  high  to  per- 


CONDITIONS   OF  EASY  CONTROL.  77 

mit  the  pupils'  feet  to  rest  on  the  floor.  For  obvious 
reasons,  dangling  feet  are  soon  attended  with  physical 
discomfort  and  restlessness ;  and  so  good  order,  as 
well  as  health  and  comfort,  forbids  the  use  of  seats  too 
high  for  the  pupils.  \ 

This   difficulty  is  perhaps    most    serious  in   graded 
schools,  where  the  pupils,  who  are  seated  in  the  sev- 
eral rooms,  belong  to  the  same  grade  or  class.     This 
seating  of  pupils  of  the  same  grade  in  each  room  has  led 
to  the  general  practice  of  furnishing  each  room  with 
desks  of  one  height,  it  being  assumed  that     Desksof 
pupils  of   like    attainments   will    be   of   like       same 
size.     But  observation  shows  that  pupils  of      Hei&ht- 
the  same  grade  differ  much  in  size.     We  have  seen  few 
schools  where  desks  of  at  least  two  sizes  were  not  re- 
quired for  the  reasonable  comfort  of  the  pupils.     In 
primary  schools  a  few  of  the  pupils  will  be  much  above 
the  average  height,  and  in  upper  grades  a  few  of  the 
pupils  may  be  much  below  this  average. 

It  is  not  easy  to  remedy  this  difficulty  in  a  satisfac- 
tory manner.     The  fact  that  the  modern  desk  unites 
desk  and  seat  (required  by  economy)  prevents 
the  use  of  desks  of  different  sizes  in  the  same 
row ;  and  so  the  best  that  can  be  done  is  to  put  desks 
of  a  larger  or  smaller  size,  as  the  need  may  be,  in  one 
or  two  rows  in  each  room,  and  even  this  mars  some- 
what the  appearance  of  the  room.     The  evil  resulting 
from  too  high  seats  may  be  in  good  part  rem- 

3  Foot  Rests. 

edied  by  the  use  of  foot  rests,  a  very  simple 
device  that  has  so  far  been  little  used  in  this  country. 
Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  construct  "ad- 
justable desks,"-  — i.e.,  desks  that   can  be  adjusted  to 
the  size  of  the  occupant,  —  but,  so  far  as  our  knowledge 


7  8  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

goes,  the  results  of  these  attempts  have  not  been  satis- 
factory. Cheapness,  durability,  and  firmness  are  too 
greatly  sacrificed,  and  these  are  important  qualities  of 
all  school  furniture. 

Another    source    of    discomfort    is    the    use    of   the 

curved   seat.     A  decided  curve  in  a  seat   causes   the 

weight  of  pupils'  limbs  to  rest  chiefly  on  the  edge  or 

ridge  of  the  seat,  thus  occasioning  pressure 

Curved  Seat. 

on  the  cutaneous  nerves  on  the  lower  or  back 
side  of  the  upper  leg.  This  pressure  is  greatly  in- 
creased  when  pupils  lean  forward  to  write  or  to  do 
other  work  on  the  desk.  The  resulting  nerve  irritation 
causes  discomfort,  if  not  positive  pain ;  and  it  may  be- 
come so  severe  as  to  involve  the  nervous  system  gen- 
erally, causing  a  pupil  to  feel  "as  if  he  would  fly."1 
Relief  can  only  be  secured  by  a  change  of  position,  this 
being  often  only  temporary;  and  it  is  cruel,  as  well 
as  useless,  to  require  a  pupil  to  sit  still  under  such 
discomfort. 

A  similar  discomfort  is  experienced  when  pupils  sit 
TOO  wide  on  seats  so  wide  that  the  needed  support  of 

seats.  the  hipS  anci  back  can  only  be  secured  by 
sitting  in  a  position  that  lifts  the  feet  from  the  floor,  — 
a  position  too  common  to  need  illustration  or  comment. 

Our  present  purpose  forbids  due  consideration  of  the 

Resulting    bodily   harm  often   caused  by  the  long  use 

Evils.      of  improper  seats  and  desks.     Physicians  of 

wide    observation   and  experience  trace    to  this   cause 

1  This  result  may  be  experienced  by  any  one  who  will  attempt  to  write 
at  a  table  while  seated  in  a  chair  with  the  bottom  sufficiently  sagged  to 
cause  the  weight  of  the  limbs  to  rest  chiefly  on  the  edge.  Only  a  few 
minutes  will  be  required  to  occasion  unpleasant  nervous  irritation  and 
positive  discomfort.  A  like  result  may  be  experienced  by  riding  a  half 
hour  in  a  modern  street  car  with  curved  seats. 


CONDITIONS  OF  EASY  CONTROL.  79 

certain  nervous  disorders,  round  shoulders  and  sunken 
chests,  curvature  of  the  spine,  impairment  of  internal 
organs  (especially  those  inclosed  by  the  pelvis),  and 
other  infirmities. 

The  proper  seating  of  schoolrooms  certainly  deserves 
wide  and  earnest  attention,  and  teachers  can  do  much 
to  secure  this  result.  What  is  specially  needed  is  an 
intelligent  observation  of  the  discomforts  Duty  of 
and  physical  ills  occasioned  by  imperfectly  Teachers, 
constructed  seats,  and  the  publication  of  the  facts. 
Manufacturers  of  school  furniture  are  seeking  such  in- 
formation, and  they  will  not  be  slow  in  acting  upon  it. 
Unfortunately,  there  is  much  of  this  improper  furniture 
now  in  use  in  the  schools,  and  the  only  feasible  present 
remedy  for  resulting  ills  is  the  making  of  provision  for 
frequent  changes  of  position,  and  physical  exercises. 


8O  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


MECHANICAL   DEVICES. 

IT  is  not  easy  to  preserve  fully  the  distinction  be- 
tween conditions  and  devices  in  school  government.  A 
device  may  be  only  a  means  for  securing  a  favorable 
condition ;  and  a  condition,  when  intelligently  secured 
by  the  teacher,  becomes  in  a  sense  a  device.  But 
nothing  is  lost,  and  for  practical  purposes  much  is 
gained,  by  treating  the  several  means  of  school  govern- 
ment under  the  two  heads  of  "conditions"  and  "de- 
vices." The  term  "mechanical"  is  added  to  indicate 
that  the  devices  here  presented  are  more  preventive 
than  formative,  their  chief  purpose  being  to  remove 
temptations  to  misconduct  and  lessen  the  occasions  of 
failure  in  effort. 

PROPER  SEATING  OF  PUPILS. 

The  first  device  in  school  discipline  to  receive  our 
attention  is  the  proper  seating  of  pupils  with  reference  to 
physical  conditions. 

An  important  result  to  be  secured  in  such  seating  is 
the  pupils'  physical  comfort.  When  the  seats  in  a  room 

Physical     are  of  different  heights,  care  must  be  taken, 

comfort,  for  reasons  before  given,  to  give  the  smaller 
pupils  the  lower  seats.  When  no  seats  are  sufficiently 
low,  the  smaller  pupils  should  be  provided  with  foot  rests, 
a  device  much  used  in  Europe.  When  a  schoolroom  is 
furnished  with  seats  too  high  or  too  wide,  or  too  much 
curved,  the  best  that  the  teacher  may  be  able  to  do  is 
to  provide,  as  far  as  may  be  practicable,  for  needed  phys- 
ical relief.  Nor  is  it  wise  to  wait  until  the  pupils' 


MECHANICAL   DEVICES.  8 1 

restlessness  indicates  their  need  of  such  relief.  The 
time-table  should  make  provision  for  brief  gymnastic 
and  other  physical  exercises,  at  sufficiently  frequent 
intervals  to  avoid  bodily  discomfort. 

Special  pains  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  seating  of 
pupils  in  positions  that  will  cause  them  to  face  a  win- 
dow, or  otherwise  expose  their  eyes  to  the  injurious 
effects  of  too  intense  a  front  light.  An  ob-  Eye 
servance  of  the  suggestions  already  made  Protection, 
(p.  75)  respecting  the  admission  of  light  to  the  school- 
room will  greatly  lessen  the  discomfort  and  consequent 
disorder  attendant  upon  a  neglect  of  these  matters. 
The  devices  for  regulating  light  in  a  schoolroom  are  so 
simple  and  inexpensive,  that  no  teacher  is  excusable  for 
such  neglect.  In  no  case  should  a  glare  of  sunlight  be 
permitted  to  fall  on  the  desks  or  books  of  pupils  when 
studying. 

It    seems    unnecessary   to    repeat    here    that  pupils 
should  not  be  seated  too  near  the  stove  or  register,  or 
too  near  an  open  window,  or  where  they  may     Distance 
otherwise  be  exposed  to  draughts  of  cold  air.    from  stove. 
The  bodily  discomfort  thus  occasioned  is  sure  to  result 
in  restlessness   and    disorder,  to   say  nothing  of  more 
serious  evils. 

We  must  emphasize,  in  this  connection,  the  teacher's 
duty  to  prevent,  as  far  as  may  be  possible,  the  bad  pos- 
tures of  pupils,  so    obviously  attended  with       Bad 
serious  evils  ;  and  a  word  of  caution  respect-    Postures, 
ing  the  numerous  mechanical   contrivances    that    have 
been  invented  to  remedy  some  of  these  evils,  may  be 
wise.     These  inventions,  patented  and  unpatented,  in- 
clude such  devices  as  (i)  face  or  forehead  wire  supports 
to  keep  the  eyes  the  proper  distance  from  the  paper 
6 


82  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

when  writing  or  drawing  ;  (2)  book  racks  to  keep  books 
at  the  right  -angle  when  pupils  are  studying  ;  (3)  shoulder 
braces  to  prevent  stooping ;  (4)  finger  supports  to  keep 
the  hand  in  the  right  position  when  writing,  etc.  Some 
of  these  devices  are  very  ingenious,  and  they  are  com- 
mended by  educators  of  high  standing,  but  not  often 
used  in  their  schools. 

The  inventors  and  users  of  these  mechanical  devices 
forget  that  the  one  sure  remedy  for  a  bad  position  is  the 
making  of  a  right  position  an  easy  habit,  and  that  habit 
is  the  result  of  repeated  free  action.  What  pupils  need 
is  not  mechanical  braces,  but  practice  under  keen  and 
firm  guidance ;  and,  to  this  end,  what  is  needed  is  a 
teacher  with  an  eye  and  a  will. 

There  is  much  insight,  as  well  as  practical  wisdom,  in 
the  recent  suggestion  that  what  is  most  needed  in  our 
"Adjustable  schools,  in  the  absence  of  adjustable  desks, 

pupils."  are  "adjustable  pupils;"  i.e.,  as  we  see  it, 
teachers  who  know  how  to  adjust  pupils  to  their 
physical  environment.  It  is  very  desirable  that  pupils 
be  surrounded  with  a  well-adjusted  environment ;  but, 
when  this  condition  is  wanting,  the  pupils  must  be 
wisely  adjusted  to  their  surroundings. 

It  is  surprising  how  much  of  comfort,  and  even  health, 
a  wise  and  tactful  teacher  can  put  into  a  school  in  an 

change  ill-constructed,  ill-furnished,  and  poorly  venti- 
of  Position,  lated  room  ;  and  the  secret  of  his  art  is  change. 
A  boy  can  stand  on  one  foot  or  sit  on  a  high  seat  with- 
out harm,  provided  that  he  does  not  stand  or  sit  too 
long.  The  position  may  be  even  beneficial  if  followed 
by  another,  calling  into  play  other  muscles.  The  human 
body  is  not  so  imperfect  a  mechanism  that  it  must 
always  be  carefully  poised  with  reference  to  its  center  of 


MECHANICAL   DEVICES.  83 

gravity.  It  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  marvelous  organism, 
capable  of  many  motions  and  attitudes,  and  strength- 
ened by  a  varied  activity.  The  bent  twig  may  incline  ; 
but  the  bent  boy  has  joints  and  sinews  and  muscles 
that  can  pull  him  back,  and  even  bend  him  the  other 
way.  The  twig  is  not  self- adjustable,  the  boy  is;  and 
this  is  a  very  great  difference.  The  physical  harm  done 
by  school  life  is  not  so  much  due  to  the  fact  that  pupils 
sit  or  stand  in  unfavorable  positions,  as  to  the  fact  that 
they  remain  in  these  positions  too  long.  It  is  continu- 
ance in  ill  doing  that  tells  upon  health  and  vigor. 

We  are  thus  brought  back  to  the  importance  of  phys- 
ical training  as  a  practical  remedy  for  the  bodily  ills 
induced  by  school  life  with  its   unfavorable     Physical 
environment.     What   is   needed  is   not  only    Training, 
exercises  which  will  afford  bodily  relief,  this  being  im- 
portant, but  such  as  will  correct  improper  tendencies, 
and  also  secure,  as  far  as  may  be  practicable,  a  proper 
development  and  strengthening  of  all  parts  of  the  body. 

It  is  now  more  than  twenty-five  years  since  light  gym- 
nastics were  widely  introduced  into  American  schools, 
more  particularly  into  high  schools,  normal 

r  J         .  :  Gymnastics. 

schools,  and  academies.  In  many  instances 
the  training  was  overdone,  and  in  others  the  interest 
awakened  proved  temporary ;  but  in  many  schools  the 
exercises  have  been  continued  with  good  results.  The 
use  of  wands,  dumb-bells,  etc.,  was  for  a  time  more  or 
less  superseded  by  exercises  that  involve  no  apparatus, 
and  also  that  require  moderate  exertion.  There  is  not  a 
rural  school  anywhere  that  cannot  introduce  pleasing  and 
salutary  physical  exercises.  The  writer  has  witnessed 
such  exercises  in  schoolrooms  crowded  with  desks. 
This  subject  is  now  receiving  renewed  attention  in 


84  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

many  of  our  cities  and  towns.  The  city  of  Boston  has 
made  provision  for  systematic  daily  physical  training  in 
all  of  its  schools,  and  the  training  is  under  the  direction 
of  special  teachers.  Other  cities  are  making  similar 
provisions,  and  there  is  a  wide  revival  of  interest  in 
physical  training. 

But  the  schools  need  not  wait  for  the  advent  of  some 
improved  "  system."  It  is  not  difficult  for  any  live 
teacher  to  pick  up  .exercises  that  will  at  least  afford 
bodily  relief  and  otherwise  conduce  to  the  health  and 
comfort  of  pupils,  and,  what  is  specially  pertinent  in 
this  connection,  prove  a  valuable  aid  in  discipline. 

A  second  device  is  the  proper  seating  of  pupils  with 
reference  to  eacJi  other. 

An  important  result  to  be  secured  by  such  seating  is 
the  obviation,  as  far  as  practicable,  of  all  occasions  for 
disorder,  and  especially  of  all  unnecessary  temptations  to 
disorder.  "  An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound 
of  cure." 

One  of  the  devices  for  securing  this  result  is  the 
seating  of  pupils  in  such  a  manner  that  those  in  the 

Alternate  same  class  may  not  sit  adjacent  to  each 
ciass  other.  When,  for  example,  a  school  is  com- 

seatmg.  pOsec}  of  two  classes,  the  pupils  therein  may 
be  seated  alternately,  or  in  alternate  rows  :  i.e.,  a  row 
of  pupils  of  the  first  class,  and  next  a  row  of  the 
second  class  ;  then  a  row  of  the  first  class,  and  next  a 
row  of  the  second  class  ;  and  so  on.  The  advantages 
thus  secured  are  obvious.  The  pupils  who  are  prepar- 
ing the  same  lessons  are  separated  from  each  other, 
thus  securing  more  independent  study,  and  also  greatly 
lessening  the  temptation  to  communicate  about  lessons 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES.  85 

and  other  matters.  It  also  distributes  the  pupils  re- 
maining in  the  room  for  study  when  the  ether  pupils 
are  reciting;  and  the  advantage  of  this  is  specially 
obvious  when  pupils  pass  to  another  room  or  occupy 
separate  seats  in  class  exercises. 

This  plan  of  seating  is  most  easily  carried  out  when 
there  are  but  two  classes  in  a  room,  and  it  is  perhaps 
least  helpful  in  an  ungraded  school,  containing  several 
classes.  But  the  principle  can  be  more  or  less  utilized 
in  any  school. 

Another  result  to  be  secured  in  the  seating  of  pupils 
is  the  separation  of  those  who  are  especially  weak  in 
each  other's  presence.     Nearly  every  school    Separation 
contains    pupils    with    such    common    weak-     of  weak 
nesses  or  with  such  personal  relations,  that      PUPIIS- 
they  are  an  undue  temptation  to  each  other.     It  is  not 
wise  to  permit  such  pupils  to  sit  together.     There  are 
other  pupils   who    need  the  special   assistance  of  the 
teacher's  eye,  and  it  is  a  help  to  them  to  sit  "well  to 
the  front"  —  not  to  be  watched,  but  to  be  seen,  and 
thus  helped. 

It  requires  good  judgment,  and  not  a  little  tact,  to 
secure  these  desirable  results  without  giving  offense, 
and  thus  doing  harm.  The  writer  has  ad-  First-Day 
vised  many  young  teachers,  taking  charge  of  seating, 
a  strange  school,  not  to  seat  the  pupils  the  first  day, 
except  temporarily,  but  to  make  the  more  permanent 
seating  near  the  close  of  the  week,  or  even  later.  A 
few  days  of  observation  will  enable  the  teacher  not 
only  to  classify  the  pupils,  but  to  learn  what  pupils 
should  be  separated,  and  what  seats  the  several  pupils 
should  occupy.  The  seating  should  not  apply  to  a  few 
pupils  only,  but  all  seats  should  be  formally  assigned. 
This  will  avoid-  the-  etiviusr-  c 


86  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

The  more  fully  and  wisely  the  foregoing  results  are 
attained  in  the  seating  of  a  school,  the  easier  will  be 
its  control,  and  the  more  satisfactory  the  progress  of 
the  pupils. 

DAILY  PROGRAMME. 

Another  important  means  of  school  management  is 
a  well-arranged  daily  programme  of  class  exercises  and 
study. 

The  value  of  a  programme  of  class  exercises  is  gen-, 

erally  recognized,  especially  in  graded  schools ;  but  the 

Lesson  and   importance  of  regulating  the   study  or  seat 

study       work  of  pupils  is  too  little  appreciated.     It. 

Programme.  seems  to  ke  assumed  by  many  teachers  that 

the  class  programme  necessarily  regulates  seat  work; 

but  this  is  often  a  mistake,  and  especially  when  there 

are  more  than  two  classes  of  pupils  in  a  room. 

The  daily  programme  has  few  difficulties  in  graded 

schools,  and  is  easily  carried  out.     The  conditions  are, 

however,  very  different  in  ungraded  schools, 

Programme 

for  and  especially  in  schools  composed  of  pupils 
ungraded  jn  all  grades  of  advancement,  —  from  the  first 
primary  to  the  higher  grammar  inclusive. 
In  such  a  school  there  is  necessarily  a  large  number  of 
class  exercises  each  day ;  and,  as  a  result,  but  a  few 
minutes  can  be  devoted  to  each  class,  and  this  time 
must  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  exercise.  As  a  conse- 
quence, the  daily  class  programme  must  provide  for 
from  twenty  to  thirty  exercises  of  from  five  to  twenty 
minutes  each ;  and  it  is  evident  that  the  observance  of 
such  a  programme  involves  either  the  wasting  of  much 
of  the  teacher's  energy  in  watching  the  time,  or  the 
assistance  of  a  "time  monitor."  The  mere  attempt  to 


MECHANICAL   DEVICES.  8/ 

prepare  a  class  time-table  for  an  ungraded  school  will 
satisfy  any  one  that  its  observance  will  be  attended 
with  serious  difficulties.  The  writer  has  examined  care- 
fully prepared  class -programmes  for  ungraded  schools, 
and  several  published  ones,  and  they  all  involve  either 
an  unwise  reduction  in  the  number  of  classes  or  the 
weakness  of  too  many  exercises,  and  these  of  varying 
length. 

Moreover,  these  uniform  class  programmes  overlook 
the  fact  that  it  is  not  possible  in  an  ungraded  school  to 
devote  precisely  the  same  time  to  each  exer-   Flexibility 
cise  from  day  to  day,  and  especially  under  the     needed- 
pressing  necessity  of  using  every  minute  to  the  best 
possible   advantage.     To-day  an   exercise  may  require 
only  ten  minutes,  and  to-morrow  fifteen  may  be  needed 
to  do  equally  good  work.     There  must  be  more  or  less 
flexibility  in  a  class  programme  in  an  ungraded  school ; 
the  more  the  better,  within  certain  limits. 

But  the  most  serious  weakness  of  the  class  pro- 
gramme in  ungraded  schools  is  its  failure  to  regulate 
the  study  or  seat  work  of  pupils.  The  several  study 
exercises  are  too  brief  and  of  too  unequal  Programme, 
length  to  secure  this  greatly  needed  result.  In  order 
that  it  may  regulate  seat  work,  the  intervals  of  a  pro- 
gramme must  be  of  nearly  equal  length,  and  they  must 
also  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  different  grades  of 
pupils.  The  younger  or  primary  pupils  cannot  profit- 
ably spend  more  than  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  minutes 
in  continuous  seat  work,  while  the  more  advanced  pupils 
can  readily  devote  two  such  periods  to  study.  These 
well-adjusted  study  intervals  cannot  well  be  provided 
in  a  class  programme,  but  they  may  be  readily  secured 
in  a  section  programme ;  that  is,  a  programme  which 


88  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

assigns  given   periods   to   the   exercises   and   study  of 

pupils  in  the  several  sections  into  which  a  school  may  be 

divided. 

The  best  arrangement  of  an  ungraded  school  for  this 

purpose  is  its  division  into  three  sections,  —  primary, 
Three-  secondary,  and  advanced  or  grammar.  The 
section  lowest  or  primary  section  may  include  all 

Programme.  M          i  11  i  T  .1 

pupils  who  use  a  book  only  in  reading,  their 
instruction  in  language,  number,  place,  etc.,  being  oral. 
The  secondary  section  may  include  pupils  who  use  text- 
books in  reading,  arithmetic  (first  book),  and  later  geog- 
raphy (elementary),  —  pupils  from  the  third  to  the  fifth 
school  year  inclusive.1  The  advanced  section  may 
include  all  pupils  above  the  secondary,  —  those  suffi- 
ciently advanced  to  use  a  complete  arithmetic  and  a 
higher  geography,  and  also  those  who  may  study  Eng- 
lish grammar,  physiology,  and  United  States  history. 
If  the  division  be  made  on  the  basis  of  reading,  the  pri- 
mary section  may  include  pupils  in  the  two  lower  read- 
ers ;  the  secondary  section,  pupils  in  the  third  and  fourth 
readers ;  and  the  advanced,  pupils  in  the  fifth  or  higher 
reader. 

Whatever  may  be  the  basis  of  the  division,  the  result 
will  be  about  the  same  as  that  secured  by  the  division 
of  an  elementary  school  into  three  departments,  as  may 
be  done  when  the  number  of  pupils  is  sufficient  to 
employ  three  teachers,  —  one  for  the  primary  classes, 
another  for  the  secondary,  and  a  third  for  the  more 
advanced  or  grammar. 

1  This  plan  was  first  recommended  by  the  writer,  if  his  information  be 
correct,  in  the  annual  report  of  the  state  commissioner  of  common  schools 
of  Ohio  in  1864.  It  has  since  appeared,  more  or  less  modified,  in  several 
works  on  school  management,  and  its  practicability  has  been  tested  in  hun- 
dreds of  country  schools. 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES.  89 

This  is  a  natural  and  simple  arrangement  for  a  rural 
school  with  only  one  teacher.  The  distinction  in  the 
work  of  the  several  sections  is  sufficiently  marked ;  and, 
at  the  same  time,  the  several  classes  in  each  section  can 
with  advantage  be  taught  in  the  same  period  in  such 
exercises  as  writing,  language,  drawing,  and  music,  —  a 
very  important  consideration.  The  number  of  classes 
in  the  two  upper  sections  in  other  branches  need  not 
exceed  two  each,  and  not  more  than  three  separate 
classes  will  be  needed  in  the  primary  sections ;  making, 
in  all,  some  seven  different  classes  in  studies  not  taught 
in  the  same  period,  and  three  classes  in  each  of  those 
studies. 

The  programme  of  class  exercises  and  seat  work 
shown  on  the  next  page  is  adapted  to  a  school  divided 
into  the  three  sections  as  above  outlined.  The  class 
exercises  are  indicated  by  boldface  type,  and  the  study 
or  seat  work  by  common  type. 

The  programme  divides  the  day  session  into  periods 
of  twenty,  twenty-five,  and  thirty  minutes  each,  the  spell- 
ing drills  in  the  two  upper  sections  being  considered 
one  period.  It  also  divides  the  teacher's  time  equitably 
among  the  three  sections.  In  the  forenoon,  the  A  sec- 
tion has  three  exercises ;  the  B  section,  two  Division  of 
exercises ;  and  the  primary  or  C  section,  two  Time, 
exercises.  In  the  afternoon,  the  A  section  has  three  sep- 
arate exercises  (including  spelling) ;  the  B  section,  two 
exercises ;  and  the  C  section,  two.  All  three  sections 
have  two  simultaneous  exercises,  —  one  in  writing  and 
language,  and  one  in  drawing,  singing,  etc.  It  is  thus 
seen  that  the  A-section  pupils  have  eight  exercises  each 
day,  the  B-section  six  exercises,  and  the  C-section  five ; 
but  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  A  section  has  two 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 


THREE-SECTION    PROGRAMME. 


CLOSING 
TIME. 

MIN- 
UTES. 

PRIMARY  (C). 

SECONDARY  (B). 

ADVANCED  (A). 

9:  10 

10 

OPENING   EXERCISES, 

9:35 

25 

Seat  Work.* 

Arithmetic. 

Arithmetic. 

10  :oo 

25 

Number. 

(On  elate  or  with  objects.) 

Arithmetic. 

Geography. 

10:25 

25 

Number. 

Geography. 

Geography. 

10:45 

20 

Form  Work. 

(Paper  folding,  stick  lajing.etc.) 

Geography. 

Geography. 

10:55 

10 

RECESS. 

11:15 

20 

Silent  Reading. 

Geography. 

Grammar. 

"'35 

20 

Reading  and 
Spelling. 

Form  Work. 

(Hap  drawing,  aand  molding, 
etc.) 

Grammar. 

12:00 

25 

Excused  from  School. 

Reading. 

Grammar. 

^JOON    INTERMISSION 

I  :  10 

IO 

* 

* 

* 

1:30 

20 

Form  Work. 

(Clay  modeling,  paper  cutting. 

Reading. 

Reading. 

1:50 

20 

Silent  Reading. 

Seat  Work.  * 

Reading. 

2:10 

20 

Reading  and 
Spelling. 

Animal  or  Plant 
Study. 

U.S.  History  or 
Physiology. 

2:40 

3° 

Writing2 
or  Language.3 

Writing2 
or  Language.3 

Writing  » 
or  Language.* 

2:50 

10 

RECESS. 

3:10 

20 

Number. 

(On  date  or  with  objects.) 

Spelling. 

U.  S.  History  or 
Physiology. 

3:35 

25 

Drawing,2  Singing,2 
or  Moral  Instruc- 
tion.1 

Drawing,2  Singing,2 
or  Moral  Instruc- 
tion.1 

Drawing,2  Singing,4 
or  Moral  Instruc- 
tion.' 

3:5° 

15 

Excused  from  School. 

Spelling. 

Spelling. 

4:00 

IO 

Arithmetic. 

Spelling. 

*  As  may  be  provided  for  by  the  teacher. 

NOTES.  —  The  small  figures  at  right  indicate  the  number  of  lessons  a  week. 

United  States  history  may  be  taught  the  first  half  of  the  session,  and  physiology 
the  second  half ;  or  each  branch  may  have  2  lessons  a  week. 

On  Friday  the  last  25  minutes  may  be  devoted  to  instruction  in  hygiene,  temperance, 
physics,  natural  history,  etc. 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES.  91 

more  studies  than  the  B,  and  the  B  section  has  one 
more  than  the  C.  The  attention  given  to  the  prepara- 
tion and  direction  of  the  seat  work  of  the  pupils  in  the 
C  section  (as  explained  below)  will  make  the  time  de- 
voted to  this  section  about  the  same  as  that  devoted  to 
the  B  section. 

A  rural  school  of  some  thirty  pupils  would  probably 
have  two  classes  in  the  A  section,  two  in  the  B  section, 
and  three  in  the  C ;  making,  in  all,  seven  Length  of 
different  classes  of  pupils.  The  time  al-  Exercises, 
lotted  by  the  programme  to  a  class  exercise  in  the  A 
section,  in  arithmetic,  for  example,  must  be  divided 
between  the  two  classes  (if  there  be  two  classes  in  the 
section),  but  not  equally  from  day  to  day,  much  depend- 
ing on  the  nature  of  the  lessons.  One  day  the  upper 
class  may  have  only  ten  minutes  and  the  lower  class 
fifteen,  and  the  next  day  this  may  be  reversed.  What 
the  programme  requires  is,  that  the  two  exercises  do  not 
together  exceed  the  time  assigned  to  the  section. 

The  primary  section  presents  the  most  difficulty,  since 
it  usually  contains  more  classes  than  the  upper  sections ; 
but  the  classes  are  small  and  the  lessons  primary 
short,  and  very  effective  work  can  be  done  section, 
with  three  small  primary  classes  in  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  minutes.  The  teacher  will  need  to  take  a 
few  minutes  before  school  (p.  99)  to  prepare  seat  work 
for  them,  and  a  minute  or  two  may  now  and  then  be 
taken  from  the  time  of  the  upper  classes  to  start  them  in 
such  work.  Some  capable  pupil  may  often  be  assigned  to 
assist  primary  pupils.  If  neither  history  nor  physiology 
is  a  regular  branch  of  study,  one  more  daily  period  may 
be  assigned  to  the  primary  classes,  and  the  same  may  be 
done  if  neither  drawing  nor  music  is  regularly  taught. 


92  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

The  inexperienced  teacher  may  not  see  how   three 
sections  of  pupils  can  be  taught  simultaneously  in  draw- 
ing, or  writing,  or  language,  each  section  hav- 

Tnrcc- 

section     ing  its  appropriate  lesson,  as  provided  for  in 
Exercises.    ^  prOgramme  on  p.  QQ  ;  but  experience  has 

solved  this  difficulty.  The  pupils  in  the  A  section  need 
the  most  time  for  practice,  and  those  in  the  C  section 
the  least ;  and  so  attention  may  first  be  given  to  the  A' 
section.  Some  five  minutes  of  instruction  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  prepare  the  pupils  for  practice,  and  five  minutes 
more  will  suffice  "  to  start  "  the  pupils  in  the  B  section. 
Needed  attention  can  then  be  given  to  the  primary 
section,  leaving  some  fifteen  minutes  for  practice. 
The  remaining  time  can  be  devoted  to  an  inspection  of 
the  work  in  the  several  sections,  the  giving  of  needed 
assistance,  etc. 

Of  course,  the  teacher  could  do  better  work  if  a  school 
were  composed  of  only  two  classes  of  pupils,  and  still 
better  work  if  there  were  but  one  class  and  one  lesson. 
There  must,  however,  be  some  progress  in  the  training 
in  writing,  drawing,  etc.,  in  country  schools  ;  and  this, 
all  things  considered,  can  best  be  secured  by  the  three- 
section  plan. 

Practical  and  progressive  training  in  language  is  so 

important  that  at  least  three  periods  each  week  should 

Language    De  devoted  to  it  by  all  the  pupils.     If  the 

Exercises,    exercises  are  synthetic,  and  pains  are  taken 

to  secure  good  writing,  especially  in  all  final  exercises, 

the  lessons  in  language  may  be  made  valuable  drills  in 

penmanship.1     There  may  be  some  advantage  in  calling 

1  For  fuller  information  respecting  these  synthetic  exercises  in  language, 
see  Elements  of  Pedagogy,  p.  243. 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES.  93 

the  lessons  in  language  (as  well  as  in  writing)  simply 
writing  exercises. 

An  examination  of  the  three-section  programme  will 
show  that  it  solves,  in  a  practical  manner,  the  problem 
of  keeping  pupils  busy,  —  so  important  an  element  in 
the  easy  government  of  a  school.     It  not  only     Keeping 
provides  the  several  classes  of   pupils  with  PUP>IS  Busy- 
definite  work  during  each  period,  but  it  affords  the  pri- 
'mary  pupils  frequent  change  and  a  needed  variety  of 
work.     Not  only  the  muscles,  but  the  mental  energies, 
of  a  child,  have  a  limited  power  of  activity,  and  hence  a 
frequent  change  of  activity  is  necessary. 

Special  pains  have  been  taken  to  avoid  too  much  pen- 
cil work  in  this  section,  an  excess  of  written  work  being 
now  a  serious  error  in  many  primary  schools.  The 
written  exercises  are  each  followed  by  recess,  or  by 
form  work,  or  a  class  exercise.  Provision  is  also  made 
for  dismissing  the  pupils  in  the  primary  section  a  few 
minutes  before  the  close  of  the  session,  forenoon  and 
afternoon.  It  would  be  still  better  if  the  primary  pupils 
could  be  dismissed  each  half  day  an  hour  earlier  than 
the  other  pupils. 

The  foregoing  pages  were  written  before  our  atten- 
tion was  called  to  the  fact  that  the  State  of  Wisconsin 
has  adopted  a  course  of  study  for  its  common  schools 
(rural)  based  on  a  three-section   plan.     The   Wisconsin 
fact  that  the  "Manual"  revised  in   1891    is       Plan- 
the  seventh  edition  shows  that  this  course  has  been  in 
use  for  several  years. 

We  learn  from  this  interesting  manual  (p.  10)  that 
a  period  of  nine  years  is  usually  required  for  children  in 
the  rural  schools  to  gain  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  common 


94  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

branches ;  and,  since  pupils  may  enter  school  in  Wis- 
consin at  five  years  of  age,  they  usually  leave  school 
before  they  reach  the  age  of  sixteen. 

Instead  of  designating  for  each  of  these  nine  years 
and  for  each  term  in  each  year  (as  is  often  done)  the 
subjects  or  parts  of  subjects  to  be  pursued,  the  course 
groups  the  subjects  or  studies  into  divisions  which  can 
be  mastered  by  pupils  on  an  average  in  three  years  eac/;. 
This  divides  the  course  of  study  into  three  divisions, 
the  lowest  being  called  the  "  Primary  Form,"  the  next 
higher  the  "  Middle  Form,"  and  the  highest  the  "  Upper 
Form." 

The  pupils  in  each  form  are  engaged  in  closely  related 
work,  but  they  may  be  divided  into  classes  with  varying 
intervals  between  them.  The  essential  provision  is  that 
the  work  assigned  for  each  form  must  be  completed  as 
a  condition  of  promotion  to  the  next  higher  form.  This 
establishes  and  maintains  a  clear  distinction  between 
the  several  forms,  and  at  the  same  time  it  gives  to  the 
course  of  study  that  flexibility  which  is  essential  in 
rural  schools. 

It  is  seen  that  this  three-form  course  of  study,  based 
on  three  degrees  of  attainments,  makes  the  three-section 
programme,  before  recommended,  both  feasible  and  de- 
sirable. The  daily  programme  in  the  "  Manual "  is  a 
three-form  programme ;  but  it  gives  only  class  exerJ 
cises,  and  does  not  attempt  to  regulate  the  seat  work 
of  pupils. 

SELF-REGULATING  SYSTEM. 

Another  important  device  in  school  management  is 
the  adoption  of  a  self-regulating  system,  —  a  system  as 
nearly  self -regulating  as  may  be  possible. 


MECHANICAL   DEVICES.  95 

A  school  is  a  sort  of  mechanism,  and  all  its  move- 
ments must  be  regular  to  avoid  confusion  and  waste  of 
time ;  and  the  more  nearly  these  movements  are  self- 
directing,  the  better.  The  ideal  is  reached  when  a 
school  runs  like  a  clock,  and,  as  before  stated,  by  an 
inner  impulse  and  regulator. 

What  is  needed  to  attain  this  ideal  is  not  "  company- 
front  "  drills,  but  the  quiet  and  firm  holding  of  pupils 
to  prompt  and  orderly  movements  until  they       Right 
form  the  habit  of  easy  compliance  with  the      Habits, 
adopted  system.     They  must  not  only  know  what  to  do, 
but  they  must  be  trained  to  do  it  without  directions  or 
orders. 

This  self-regulating  system  must  include  such  details 
as  the  entering  of  the  schoolroom  and  the  disposal  of 
hats  and  wraps  ;  the  dismissal  of  pupils  for  recess  or  at 
the  close  of  the  session  ;  the  calling  of  classes  ;  Details 
the  use  of  the  blackboard  in  class  exercises,  "grated, 
also  books  and  slates  ;  the  posture  of  pupils  when  recit- 
ing, whether  standing  or  sitting ;  the  distribution  and 
collection  of  copy  books,  pens,  etc.,  in  writing  exercises, 
also  of  drawing  books,  pencils,  etc.,  in  drawing  exer- 
cises ;  the  distribution  and  collection  of  readers,  slates 
and  pencils,  form  materials,  etc.,  in  primary  classes ;  the 
sharpening  and  care  of  pencils ;  the  supplying  of  paper 
and  other  materials  when  needed,  etc. 

If  a  teacher  is  obliged  to  give  personal  attention  to 
all  these  details,  a  considerable  amount  of  his  time  and 
energy  will  thus  be  employed,  and  with  unsatisfactory 
results.  This  may  be  "keeping  school,"  but  it  is  not 
the  training  of  a  school  to  run  itself.  What  is  needed 
is  the  reducing  of  all  these  details  to  such  a  system 
that  they  will  be  secured  without  the  teacher's  per- 


96  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

sonal  attention,  certainly  without  the  teacher's  personal 
direction  and  effort. 

A  few  illustrations  will   suffice  to   indicate  what   is 

meant  by  a  self-regulating  system  in  these  details.     The 

distribution  and   collection  of  the  materials  used  in  a 

writing  exercise  may  each  be  done,  in  a  school 

Illustrations. 

of  the  usual  size,  in  a  minute,  certainly  in 
'less  than  two  minutes ;  and  this,  too,  without  taking  a 
moment  of  the  teacher's  time.  The  writer  has  seen 
this  result  accomplished  by  several  devices  or  plans. 
One  places  the  copy  books  for  each  division  or  row  of 
pupils  on  the  front  desk,  —  this  being  done  by  a  pupil 
assigned  to  this  duty,  —  and  the  books  are  handed 
rapidly  back,  each  pupil  removing  his  book  from  the 
top  or  bottom  of  the  pile,  as  may  be  arranged,  as  he 
passes  it  to  the  next. 

Another  plan  appoints  a  pupil  in  each  division  to  dis- 
tribute and  collect  copy  books,  pens,  etc. ;  and  a  little 
training  will  enable  pupils  to  do  this  rapidly  and  with- 
out any  confusion.  Drawing  materials,  including  books, 
pencils,  etc.,  may  be  distributed  and  collected  in  like 
manner. 

What  is  needed  is  the  devising  of  a  simple  plan  and 

Training     the  training  of  the  assistants  ;  and  it  may  be 

Assistants,   added,  that  pupils  like  to  serve  the  school  in 

these  duties.     They  do  not  look  upon  even  a  month's 

service  in  such  matters  as  a  burden,  but   rather  as  a 

pleasure  and  an  honor. 

The  success  of  any  plan  will  of  course  depend  upon 
the  teacher  being  in  it  and  back  of  it.  A  system  may  be 
self-regulating,  but  it  cannot  devise  itself,  or  run  itself 
without  force  being  supplied.  These  results  require 
both  the  wit  and  the  will  of  the  teacher. 


MECHANICAL   DEVICES.  97 

In  no   other  department   of    school    management  is 
system  more  needed  than  in  the  care,  distribution,  and 
collection   of  the  books,  slates,  pencils,   etc.,   used  by 
pupils  in  the  primary  classes,  especially  in  un-    Systemin 
graded  schools.     Experience  shows  that  it  is     Primary 
not  wise  to  permit  young  children  to  keep     Classes- 
their  books   and  other  appliances   constantly  at  their 
desks    or   seats.     A    child    loses    interest    even    in    an 
ever-present  toy;  much  more  in  an  ever-present  book 
or  slate,   to  say  nothing  of   the  temptation  to  use   it 
improperly. 

What  is  needed  to  keep  primary  pupils  interested 
and  busy  is  a  frequent  change  of  activity  or  employ- 
ment, as  is  provided  for  in  the  programme  on  p.  90, 
and  this  involves  a  corresponding  change  of  "tools" 
at  the  close  of  each  programme  period,  —  the  taking- 
up  of  those  that  have  been  used,  and  the  distribution  of 
those  to  be  used  in  the  next  period,  —  all  ready  for  use. 
The  pencils  must  be  sharpened,  the  paper  cut  for  fold- 
ing (if  paper-folding  be  the  exercise),  etc. ;  and,  to  this 
end,  it  must  be  made  some  pupil's  duty  to  attend  to 
these  matters.1  When  pens,  pencils,  paper,  and  other 
needed  materials  are  not  supplied  by  the  school  board, 
—  as  they  always  should  be,  —  the  teacher  will  find  it 
necessary  to  keep  a  supply  for  use,  when  needed. 
Much  time  is  wasted,  and  many  an  exercise  spoiled,  by 
the  absence  of  necessary  appliances,  or  by  delay  in 
securing  them.  Everything  required  in  an  exercise 
should  be  ready  at  its  beginning. 

Whatever  may  be  true  of  free  text-books,  —  and  free 

1  The  writer  once  found  the  principal  of  a  public  school  sharpening 
the  slate  pencils  used  in  the  lower  grades,  —  certainly  not  a  very  profit- 
able use  of  valuable  time. 
7 


98  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

books    seem    to    be    a   necessary    condition    of    really 

free  schools,  —  all    material  used    in    school    exercises 

Free        should  be  supplied  by  the  school  board.     If 

Material.  not  thus  supplied,  much  must  be  furnished 
by  the  teacher  in  order  to  save  time  and  make  effi- 
cient work  possible.  Moreover,  it  is  doubtless  true 
that  the  frequent  demands  made  on  parents  for  money 
to  buy  pens,  pencils,  paper,  etc.,  causes  more  annoy- 
ance and  provokes  more  criticism  than  the  supply  of 
all  necessary  books ;  and,  besides,  not  a  few  parents 
do  not  know  whether  the  money  which  they  thus 
furnish  is  properly  used.  A  recent  investigation  in 
a  public  school  disclosed  the  fact  that  money  fur- 
nished by  parents  for  school  material,  as  they  sup- 
posed, had  been  used  by  a  number  of  the  boys  to  buy 
cigarettes.1 

As  a  rule,  it  is  not  wise  for  a  teacher  to  require  pupils 
to  ask  their  parents  for  money  for  school  use,  and,  for 
like  reasons,  it  is  not  a  good  practice,  when  not  neces- 
sary, for  teachers  to  sell  articles  to  pupils ;  and  it  is 

selling  of    certainly  an  unreasonable  tax  on  the  teacher's 

Material,  limited  income  to  be  obliged  to  supply  school 
material,  when  needed,  at  his  own  expense ;  though  this, 
in  exceptional  cases,  may  be  the  lesser  of  the  two  evils. 
It  is  a  far  better  plan  for  the  school  board  to  supply  ink 
and  pens,  pencils,  paper,  and  all  other  material  which 
pupils  are  required  to  use  in  school  work.  These  sup, 
plies  can  be  bought  by  school  boards  in  quantities 
at  less  than  the  price  paid  by  individual  pupils ;  and, 
besides,  all  pupils  are  then  supplied  with  suitable  ap- 

1  The  smoking  of  cigarettes  by  growing  boys  has  become  an  alarming 
evil  in  many  cities  and  towns,  and  all  the  power  and  influence  of  the 
school  should  be  used  to  suppress  it. 


MECHANICAL  DEVICES.  99 

pliances  and  materials,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  school 
is  thus  greatly  enhanced. 

What  has  been  said  above  of  the  importance  of  sys- 
tem in  the  care,  distribution,  and  collection  of  appli- 
ances and   material  in  writing  and  drawing  General  Need 
exercises  and  in  primary  classes,  applies  to  the  of  system, 
entire  management  of  a  school,  and  especially  a  school 
composed  of  many  pupils  or  many  classes.     A  lack  of 
system  results  in  a  waste  of  time  and  effort,  and  is  a 
source  of  disorder;  but  the  presence  of  system  means 
order  and  efficiency,  provided  the  teacher  is  master  of 
the  system. 

When  the  most  possible  has  been  accomplished  in 
this  direction,  there  will  still  be  a  demand  for  all  the 
time  and  energy  of  the  teacher,  especially  in  ungraded 
schools.  The  preparation  of  seat  work  for  the  primary 
pupils,  including  the  putting  of  the  writing  Preparation 
exercises  on  the  board,  the  words  and  sen-  of  work, 
tences  to  be  copied,  the  forms  to  be  drawn  or  made  by 
stick-laying  or  paper-folding,  etc.,  will  often  require  the 
teacher's  attention  before  school  and  at  recess ;  and, 
besides,  the  needed  inspection  of  the  pupils'  work  will 
require  the  use  of  every  spare  moment,  and  even  the 
taking  of  a  little  time  now  and  then  from  the  higher 
classes.  This  needed  inspection  and  assistance  may  be 
much  facilitated  by  the  plan  (above  suggested)  of  tak- 
ing up  the  work  of  primary  pupils  at  the  close  of  each 
period.  A  minute  may  suffice  to  look  over  the  slate 
work  of  several  pupils,  and  this  is  also  true  of  their 
work  in  number,  paper-folding,  stick-laying,  etc.  It  is 
surprising  how  busy  and  interested  young  pupils  can 
be  kept  by  a  little  assistance  and  encouragement. 


IOO  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


FEW  RULES. 

A  final  suggestion  under  the  head  of  "devices"  is 
the  wisdom  of  enacting  few  rules,  if  any. 

Many  teachers  have  learned  by  an  unpleasant  expe- 
rience the  folly  of  attempting  to  govern  a  school  by  a 
oid-Time  code  of  rules,  and  especially  of  attempting 

Practice.  to  regulate  the  conduct  of  pupils  by  such  a 
code.  The  old-time  teacher  was  a  believer  in  "law  and 
order,"  and  especially  in  law.  He  assumed,  in  a  gen- 
eral way,  that,  in  the  absence  of  prescribed  law,  there 
could  be  no  transgression,  and  inferred  that  no  pupil 
could  be  rightfully  punished  for  an  offense  which  had 
not  been  formally  forbidden ;  and  so  he  held  it  to  be  his 
first  duty  to  frame  and  announce  a  code  of  rules  cover- 
ing all  probable,  if  not  possible,  school  duties  and  of- 
fenses. As  a  result,  the  rules  enacted  often  forbade 
conduct  of  which  no  pupil  in  the  school  had  ever  been 
guilty ;  and  this  not  infrequently  awakened  a  desire  to 
do  the  things  forbidden,  the  rule  thus  becoming  the 
occasion  of  transgression.  A  teacher  once  enacted  a 
rule  forbidding  pupils  climbing  on  the  wood  shed,  —  a. 
feat  which  no  pupil  had  then  attempted,  or  probably 
thought  of.  At  the  next  recess  the  wood  shed  was  cov- 
ered with  boys  who  had  seemingly  just  discovered  that 
there  was  no  other  such  place  for  real  sport ! 

These  numerous  rules  not  only  suggested  offenses, 
but  their  enforcement  was  often  beyond  the  teacher's 
ability,  —  a  fact  soon  discerned  by  ill-disposed  pupils. 
The  result  was  the  breaking-down  of  the  teacher's  au- 
thority, and  an  unhappy,  if  not  hopeless,  conflict  with 
disorder. 


MECHANICAL"  DE  V?CE$  JOI 


The  ideal  school  has  few,  if  any,  rules  relating  to 
offenses,  with  prescribed  penalties.  Its  regulations 
relate,  not  to  conduct,  but  to  attendance,  The  ideal 
classification,  etc.,  —  chiefly  matters  of  ad-  School, 
ministration.  In  conduct  it  relies  upon  the  unwritten 
law  of  right  and  duty,  —  a  law  which  the  youngest 
pupils  know  as  well  as  the  oldest,  and  which  all  know 
so  well,  that  its  violation  may  be  punished  as  properly 
as  the  transgression  of  a  formal  rule,  and  with  much 
more  freedom.  The  wise  teacher  seeks  to  secure  good 
behavior,  not  by  regulations,  but  by  an  appeal  to  the 
pupil's  sense  of  right  and  duty. 

There  may  be  occasions  in  a  school  which  call  for  the 
enactment  of   rules  positively  forbidding  specified  of- 
fenses ;  but  it  is  good  policy  never  to  enact    When  to 
such  a  rule  until  the  occasion  is  clearly  urgent.       Enact 
and  then  the  rule  should  not  often  prescribe  a 
specific  penalty.     Punishment  should  generally  be  kept 
within  the  discretion  of  the  teacher.     When  a  positive 
rule  is  made,  it  should  be  uniformly  enforced ;  and,  when 
there  is  no  further  necessity  for    its    enforcement,  it 
should  be  repealed.     There  should  be  no  dead-letter  laws 
in  a  school  code  (p.  191). 

It  may  be  added,  that  it  is  never  wise  in  school  admin- 
istration to  enact  a  rule  that  cannot  be  enforced,  or 
even  one  which  is  not  likely  to  be  enforced.  There  is 
no  surer  way  to  break  down  respect  for  law  than  by  its 
fitful  and  uncertain  enforcement ;  and  it  must  ever  be 
kept  in  mind  that  respect  for  law  is  one  of  the  cardinal 
virtues  of  good  citizenship. 


102 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 


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MORAL  TRAINING. 


MORAL  TRAINING. 


PRINCIPLES. 

WE  now  reach  the  essential  and  vital  function  of 
school  government,  the  training  of  the  pupil  in  habits 
of  self-control  and  self -direction,  —  a  training  that  pre- 
pares him  to  be  a  self-governing  being.  All  that  has 
been  said  is  important  merely  as  conditions  to  this  end. 
The  teacher's  qualifications,  his  personal  influence  and 
authority,  favorable  conditions,  mechanical  devices,  etc., 
are  all  important  ;  but  they  do  not  constitute  true  disci- 
pline. They  simply  facilitate  such  discipline,  making 
success  easier  and  surer ;  and,  for  this  reason,  they  de- 
serve, as  they  have  received,  careful  consideration ;  and 
this  prepares  the  way  for  an  intelligent  study  of  dis- 
cipline itself. 

It    is   to   be    specially   observed    that   the   essential 
element  in  school  discipline,  as  above  defined,  is  train- 
ing, and  that  this  training  has  a  very  definite 
end,  —  the  power  of  self-government  in  con- 
duct.    We  have  a  term  that  quite  clearly  designates  this 
power,  —  the  term  character.     Character  is  the  power 
that  lies  back  of  conduct  as  its  source.     Character  is 
the  fountain ;  conduct,  the  outflowing  stream.     Hence 
all  true  discipline  with  reference  to  conduct  is  charac- 
ter training ;  i.e.,  the  forming  of  such  states  of  feeling 

105 


IO6  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

in  the  pupil,  such  moral  judgments,  and  such  habitual 

modes  of  action,  as  make  right  conduct  easy  and  pleasant. 

This  may  be  somewhat   indefinite,  as   most  general 

statements  are  likely  to  be,  but  it  touches  the  very  root 

of  school  government  as  an  art.     It  shows 

Function. 

that  its  true  function  is  not  the  external  con^ 
trol  and  regulation  of  the  pupil's  conduct,  but  the  vital- 
izing of  its  inner  source  and  principle.  This  makes 
government  not  only  an  art,  but  the  central  art  of  edu- 
cation, —  an  art  that  requires  for  its  successful  prac- 
tice, not  only  a  clear  grasp  of  the  ends  to  be  attained, 
but  a  knowledge  of  the  guiding  principles  involved, 
and  both  knowledge  and  skill  in  the  use  of  methods,  — 
an  art  worthy  of  the  most  careful  study. 

The  ends  being  determined,  the  next  step  is  to  ascer- 
tain the  principles  involved  in  the  training  or  forming 
Psychical  of  character,  and  to  this  end  certain  psychi- 
Facts.  cai  facts  must  be  clearly  understood.  The 
first  of  these  is  the  fact  that  every  act  of  the  soul 
leaves  as  its  enduring  result  an  increased  power  to  act, 
and  a  tendency  to  act  again  in  like  manner.  Power 
and  tendency  are  the  abiding  results  of  all  psychical 
activity ;  and  hence  every  power  of  the  soul  is  de- 
veloped by  its  appropriate  activity.  There  can  be  no 
development  of  any  power,  whether  in  strength  or 
tendency  (habit),  without  its  appropriate  action.  This 
is  the  fundamental  law  of  training. 

This    law  applies   not    only  to   the   training  of   the 

several  intellectual  powers,  but  also  to  the  training  of 

Law  of     ^e  sensibility  and  the  will,  and  eminently  to 

character    the  training  of  the  moral  powers.     Character 

Training.    js  not  onjv  the  source  of  conduct,  but  it  is 

also  the  resultant  of  moral  activity,  and  hence  char- 


PRINCIPLES.  107 

acter  is  trained  only  by  the  appropriate  activity  of  the 
moral  powers. 

But  what  constitutes  an  activity  of  the  moral  powers  ? 
More  definitely,  what  is  a  moral  action  ?  The  answer 
to  this  inquiry  will  give  us  the  key  to  moral  Moral 
training  as  a  school  art.  It  will  suffice  for  Action, 
our  present  purpose  to  say  that  every  moral  action  has 
its  source  in  a  sense  of  duty ;  i.e.,  in  a  feeling  of 
obligation.  An  action  that  has  reference  to  duty  or 
obligation  is  a  moral  action.  When  this  sense  or  feel- 
ing is  wanting,  as  is  believed  to  be  the  case  in  dumb 
brutes,  action  has  no  moral  quality.  In  man  this  sense 
of  duty  is  an  original  endowment,  —  the  innate  impulse 
and  law  of  the  soul  ;  and  hence  the  moral  quality  of 
human  conduct  is  determined  primarily  by  its  relation 
to  conscious  duty. 

But  the  mere  feeling  of  obligation  is  not  moral 
action,  and  it  may  not  issue  in  such  action.  The 
inner  impulse  must  be  carried  over  into  a 
purpose  or  out  into  a  deed.  It  must  issue  in 
action  ;  and  this  requires  the  exercise  of  the  will,  — 
the  act-determining  power  of  the  soul.  In  other  words, 
while  all  moral  action  has  its  source  in  the  sense  of 
duty,  the  actual  existence  of  such  action  depends  upon 
the  exercise  of  the  powers  of  choice  and  volition,  — 
the  putting-forth  of  executive  energy  by  the  soul  itself. 
It  is  this  will  element  in  human  action  that  gives  to 
obligation  its  binding  force. 

But  this   is   not   the   whole  truth.      This   voluntary 
element  must  be  free.     It  is  not  necessary  for  our  pres- 
ent purpose  to  assume  or  prove  the  actual  Free  Action 
freedom  of  the  human  will  in  all  its  activity,     of  win. 
or,  more  accurately,  the  freedom  of  the  soul  in  willing. 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

What  now.  concerns  us  is  the  fact  that  the  moral 
quality  of  a  choice  or  purpose  depends  necessarily  upon 
the  power  of  the  soul,  in  the  identical  circumstances, 
to  make  a  different  choice  or  purpose.  When  this 
power  to  act  differently  is  wanting,  human  action  is 
necessitated,  and  hence  has  no  moral  attribute.  So  far 
as  we  are  able  to  interpret  the  actions  of  the  lower 
animals,  they  are  necessitated  by  their  nature  and  en- 
vironment, and  for  this  reason  they  have  neither  the 
feeling  of  obligation  nor  the  sense  of  responsibility, 
and  their  actions  are  destitute  of  moral  quality.  The 
same  would  be  true  of  man's  conduct  were  all  his 
actions  necessitated  by  conditions  over  which  he  has 
no  control,  and  moral  distinctions  would  disappear.1  A 
failure  to  do  what  one  has  not  the  power  to  do  is 
not  wrong,  provided  the  inability  is  not  the  result  of 
one's  own  fault.  Ability  is  essential  to  responsibility. 
"  Nothing  impossible,"  says  Seelye,  "  is  a  duty  ;  "  and 
hence  the  one  word  "  duty  "  holds  all  moral  obligation 
and  responsibility.  It  is  true  that  the  will  acts  in  view  of 
motives,  but  it  must  be  free  to  determine  what  its  acts 
shall  be.  "  Motives,"  says  Porter,  "  impel  the  will,  but 
they  do  not  compel  it ;  "  and  this  must  be  true  in  all 
moral  action. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  all  moral  action  has  its  source  in 

the  sense  of  duty,  and  that  it  is  put  forth  in  a  free  act 

Moral      of  the  will,  and  that  these  two  conditions  or 

character,    elements  give  to  human  conduct  its  moral 

quality.     It  follows  that  moral  character  is  the  resultant 

of  choices,  purposes,  and  actions  put  forth  freely  with 

1  "  I  am  persuaded  that  in  some  form  or  other  the  doctrine  of  neces- 
sity is  always  based  on  materialism,  though  its  advocates  may  be  uncon- 
scious of  it."  —  DR.  SCHURMAN,  Cornell  University. 


PRINCIPLES.  109 

reference  to  duty ;  and  hence  moral  character  is  formed 
by  the  free  exercise  of  the  will  in  response  to  the  feeling 
of  obligation,  —  an  exercise  that  results  in  a  state  of  the 
will  freely  responsive  to  conscience.  We  thus  reach 
the  important  fact  that  moral  training  is  primarily  will 
training,  —  the  training  of  the  will  to  act  habitually  in 
free  obedience  to  the  sense  of  duty. 

Much   has   been  said  and  written  of   the  value  of 
obedience  to  authority  as  a  means  of  moral  discipline, 
and  we  shall  again  refer  to  this  subject  (p.  128);  but 
what  the  teacher  needs  specially  to  realize  is    Obedience 
the  fact  that  the  disciplinary  value  of  such  from  Right 
obedience  will   largely  depend  upon  the  mo-     Motives- 
fives  which  prompt  it.      When  obedience  to  authority 
is  a  free  voluntary  act,  prompted  by  a  sense  of  duty,  it 
has  high  moral  value ;  but  when  it  springs  from  a  fear 
of  punishment,  or  is  otherwise  forced,  its  disciplinary 
results    are  comparatively   small.     Force  or  fear  may 
keep  back  the  pupil  from  wrong  doing ;  but  a  sense  of 
duty  not   only  impels   but  wins   to   right   doing.     The 
discipline  of  fear  is  chiefly  negative ;  the  training  that 
secures  obedience  to  conscience  is  positive. 

It  must,  however,  be  conceded  that  even  constrained 
obedience  is  better,  much  better,  than  disobedience. 
The  habit  of  unquestioning  obedience  to  rightful 
authority  is  not  only  a  good  in  itself,  and  a  obedience 
needed  preparation  for  civil  duties,  but  it  is  Necessary, 
a  necessary  condition  for  the  exercise  of  other  virtues. 
Where  the  spirit  of  disobedience  rules,  no  effective 
moral  training  is  possible.  But  no  competent  teacher 
ought  to  be  long  shut  up  to  the  alternatives  of  suffer- 
ing (the  right  word  here)  disobedience  or  securing 
obedience  by  force.  His  special  aim  should  be  to 


IIO  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

remove  these  alternatives  by  forming  in  his  pupils  hab- 
its of  free  and  cheerful  obedience  from  a  sense  of  right 
and  duty,  and,  to  this  end,  the  teacher  must  be  inspired 
by  a  love  for  his  pupils  that  wins  their  love  in  return. 

A  careful  discrimination  should,  however,  be  made 
between  personal  love,  or  love  for  the  individual  as 

Personal  related  to  one's  self,  and  love  for  pupils  as 
Love.  pupils  or  for  the  teacher  as  teacher.  The 
former  love  may  have  its  source  in  a  selfish  preference ; 
the  latter  is  essentially  generous.1 

The  fact  remains  that  the  two  essential  principles  of 
obedience  are  love  to  God  and  love  to  man ;  and  all 
duty  flows  from  this  dual  source.  Obedience  is  the 

Love  and  fulfilling  of  the  law,  and  that  law  is  love, 
obedience.  Authority  without  love  is  despotism,  and, 
generally,  obedience  without  love  is  serfdom.  Obedi- 
ence inspired  by  love  is  liberty.  In  the  last  analysis, 
duty  is  obedience  to  the  will  of  God  ;  and  the  voice  of 
duty  is  the  voice  of  God  in  the  soul.  Love  to  God 
makes  obedience  the  highest  freedom,  and  through 
such  obedience  the  will  is  made  truly  free.  This 
truth  is  happily  expressed  by  Longfellow  in  the  lines, 

"  To  will  what  God  doth  will ; 
That  is  the  only  science 
That  gives  us  any  rest." 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  moral  training 

cannot  be  wisely  made  one  of  those  incidental  functions 

Moral       of  the  school  that  can  be  given  only  the  odds 

Training.    ancj  ends  of  school  effort.     It  is  not  only  a 

central  but  a  vital  function  of  education,  and  all  other 

functions  must  be  subordinated  to  it.     This  does  not 

1  For  a  practical  illustration  of  the  weakness  of  personal  affection  as  a 
is  of  obedience  in  school,  see  p.  184. 


PRINCIPLES.  1 1 1 

imply  that  intellectual  or  physical  training  is  to  be 
neglected,  but  that  all  training  should  be  put  in  har- 
mony with  this  supreme  end  of  the  school,  —  the  prepa- 
ration of  children  "to  live  completely ;  "  and,  to  this  end, 
character  must  be  put  before  learning.  "  Conduct,"  says 
Matthew  Arnold,  "is  three-fourths  of  life,"  and  char- 
acter is  the  source  of  conduct.  This  tells  the  story. 

In  the  preceding  pages  special  emphasis  has  been 
given  to  the  element  called  training,  —  i.e.,  doing  under 
inspiration  and  guidance,  —  and  it  only  remains  to 
add,  in  this  connection,  that  effective  moral  Moral 
discipline  also  involves  instruction  in  duty,  instruction. 
While  the  feeling  or  impulse  of  duty  is  innate,  and  the 
idea  of  obligation  intuitive,  duty  in  the  concrete,  the 
determining  of  what  is  one's  duty  in  varying  circum- 
stances, calls  for  knowledge;  and  the  fuller  one's 
knowledge  of  all  the  conditions  involved,  the  clearer 
will  be  the  way  of  duty.  The  intellect  must  show  what 
ought  to  be  done  before  the  conscience  can  impel  us  to 
the  doing  of  it.  "The  sense  of  obligation,"  says  Dr. 
Cutler,  "does  not  tell  us  what  we  ought,  but  only  that 
we  ought."  l  There  is  a  necessary  relation  of  sequence 
between  knowledge  and  duty,  and  hence  it  is  that  no 
being  has  the  sense  of  moral  obligation  that  is  not  en- 
dowed with  intelligence.  Ignorance  is  not  the  mother 
of  virtue. 

Moreover,  moral  training,  as  we  have  seen,  involves 
the   training  of    the   will    to    act    habitually     steps  to 
from  right  motives  ;  but  all  motives  are  feel-     conduct, 
ings,  and  all  feelings,  not  body-born,  are  awakened  by 
knowledge.     In    our    psychical    life   knowledge   is   the 

1  Cutler's  Beginnings  of  Ethics,  p.  163. 


112  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

occasion  of  feeling,  and  feeling  the  occasion  of  choices 
and  purposes,  and  these  issue  in  conduct.  Hence,  in 
moral  training,  instruction  is  needed  to  awaken  right 
feelings  as  motives  to  action,  as  well  as  to  guide  action. 
Moral  instruction  is  an  essential  element  of  effective 
moral  training,  and  such  instruction  must  touch  the 
heart  and  conscience  as  well  as  guide  the  will.1 

It  is  thus  seen  that  moral  training  involves  two  some- 
what  distinct  elements,  —  training  and  instruction,— 
and  that  the  essential  element  in  training  is 

Elements. 

the  influencing  of  the  will  to  act  habitually 
from  right  motives.  But  will  training,  as  thus  defined, 
assumes  (i)  the  presence  of  right  motives  in  the  moral 
life  of  the  pupils,  and  (2)  a  possible  wise  and  skillful 
use  of  such  motives  in  securing  right  conduct ;  and, 
logically,  the  first  assumption  precedes  and  conditions 
the  second. 

A  following  of  this  logical  order  would  necessitate  a 
consideration  of  the  methods  of  awakening  and  sustain- 
orderof  ing  right  feelings  as  motives  in  school  disci- 
Topics.  pHne  before  a  treatment  of  the  art  of  using 
such  motives.  But  there  seems  to  be  a  practical  advan- 
tage in  the  reversal  of  this  order,  —  in  (i)  assuming  the 
presence  of  right  feelings,  and  considering  methods  of 
using  them  in  school  discipline ;  and  (2),  this  practical 
art  being  understood,  proceeding  to  consider  methods  of 
awakening  and  sustaining  right  feelings  as  motives. 
This  order  places  the  emphasis  on  the  right  use  of 
motives  in  all  the  work  and  duties  of  the  school ;  and, 

1  This  vital  principle  will  be  more  fully  discussed  in  the  pages  to  be 
specially  devoted  to  moral  instruction;  but  the  importance  of  its  clear 
recognition  in  all  that  may  be  said  on  moral  training  has  seemed  to  justify 
a  reference  to  it  here. 


PRINCIPLES.  113 

this  being  intelligently  undertaken,  the  importance  of 
instruction  to  awaken  right  feelings  will  be  evident.  To 
secure  this  practical  advantage,  we  herein  consider  the 
right  training  of  the  will  before  presenting  the  subject 
of  moral  instruction. 

8 


114  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 


WILL   TRAINING. 

THE  work  and  discipline  of  a  well-ordered  school 
afford  excellent  opportunities  for  the  training  of  the 
occasions  w^-  The  organization  of  the  school  neces- 
for  win  sitates  combination  in  effort,  and  it  thus 
Training.  afforc}s  valuable  training  in  those  mechanical 
virtues  which  are  the  basis  of  industrial  pursuits.  The 
school  is  also  a  social  community  with  common  inter- 
ests ;  and  it  thus  affords  needed  training  in  the  social 
virtues,  as  courtesy,  kindness,  forbearance,  charity,  etc. 
The  school  is  likewise,  in  some  respects,  a  civil  commu- 
nity in  which  all  the  members  have  equal  rights  and 
privileges ;  and  this  fact  makes  justice  an  essential 
principle,  and  necessitates  the  subordination  of  the  will 
of  the  individual  to  authority  exercised  for  the  common 
good.  In  these  several  functions  the  school  affords 
numerous  and  varied  occasions  for  the  effective  train- 
ing of  the  will  in  conduct. 

THE  SEVEN  SCHOOL  VIRTUES. 

There  are  at  least  seven  results  or  virtues  which  are 
secured  by  every  good  school,  and  these  afford  occa- 
sions for  the  training  of  the  will. 

i.  REGULARITY. 

The  first  of  these  school  virtues  is  regularity  in 
attendance.  This  means  the  making  of  school  duties 
a  business,  and  subordinating  all  other  interests  to 
it.  This  makes  regularity  a  governing  purpose,  —  a 
purpose  which  controls  all  related  choices  and  wishes, 


WILL    TRAINING.  115 

and  steadily  directs  all  efforts  to  the  chosen  end.  This 
involves  not  only  persistent  effort,  but  the  skillful  over- 
coming of  obstacles,  the  meeting  of  all  diversions  with 
decision,  and  the  providing  of  a  time  and  place  for 
other  necessary  duties.  No  one  discipline  of  the  school 
enters  more  helpfully  into  practical  life  than  regularity. 
It  is  the  basis  of  combination,  whether  in  industrial, 
social,  or  civil  affairs,  and  its  presence  makes  success 
possible.1 

2.   PUNCTUALITY. 

The  second  of  these  school  virtues  is  punctuality. 
This  includes  not  only  being  in  school  morning  and 
afternoon  on  time,  and  at  recess,  but  promptness  in 
meeting  every  requirement  during  the  day,  —  the  be- 
ginning and  ending  of  every  duty  on  time.  This 
involves  self-denial  in  many  directions,  the  resisting 
of  temptations  to  dally  and  loiter,  the  subordinating 
of  present  impulse  to  duty,  the  sacrifice  of  ease  or 
pleasure  to  future  good,  etc.  It  is  obvious  that  these 
varied  occasions  for  choices  and  decisions  may  afford 
an  effective  training  of  the  will. 

3.   NEATNESS. 

Another  of  these  school  virtues  is  neatness,  including 
cleanliness.  This  is  a  personal  virtue,  and  as  such 
comes  under  the  class  of  duties,  known  as  duties  to 
self.  It  includes  not  only  cleanliness  of  person  and 
clothing,  but  neatness  in  everything  that  is  possessed, 
or  used,  or  done.  This  means  habitual  efforts  to  clean 
whatever  may  be  soiled  by  use,  and  scrupulous  care  to 

1  For  an  able  discussion  of  several  of  these  virtues,  see  "Moral  Educa- 
tion in  the  Schools,"  by  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  Council  of  Education,  1883. 


Il6  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

prevent  unnecessary  soiling  or  injury,  and  also  the  doing 
of  all  mechanical  work  in  a  neat  and  orderly  manner.  It 
also  means  the  suppression  of  all  inclination  to  mark  or 
otherwise  deface  what  is  useful,  and  it  positively  forbids 
the  disfiguring  of  anything  with  unseemly  scribbling  or 
marking. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  securing  of  these  results  is  not 
only  an  important  element  of  school  training,  but  also 
of  moral  training.  "Cleanliness  is  next  to  godliness," 
because  the  attainment  of  cleanliness  in  person  sug- 
gests and  favors  purity  of  life.  Moreover,  the  efforts 
required  to  attain  this  virtue  afford  a  most  valuable 
training  of  the  will.  They  include  a  firm  resistance 'to 
the  low  tendencies  which  lurk  in  human  nature,  and  an 
exercise  of  the  choices  and  decisions  involved  in  the 
sturdy  virtue  of  self-respect,  and  especially  a  respect 
for  others.  The  surest  indications  of  a  loss  of  self- 
respect  are  untidy  clothing,  dirty  face  and  hands,  and 
disheveled  hair  —  when  occasioned,  not  by  the  condi- 
tions of  one's  labor  or  occupation,  but  by  a  want  of  care 
and  personal  effort.  One  of  the  first  steps  in  moral 
reform  is  often  a  conscientious  use  of  soap  and  water, 
comb  and  brush.1 

4.   ACCURACY. 

Another  of  these  school  virtues  is  accuracy,  —  accu- 
racy in  word,  in  work,  and  in  conduct.  This  is  a  cardinal 
virtue  of  the  school.  Its  entire  discipline,  intellectual, 
moral,  and  mechanical,  is  subverted  by  inaccuracy. 

1  It  often  requires  tact  and  good  judgment  to  secure  commendable 
neatness  in  a  school.  The  prime  conditions  are  a  clean  and  tidy  school- 
room, and  the  personal  example  of  the  teacher.  The  writer  has  seen  very 
tidy  schools  in  districts  where  most  of  the  patrons  were  poor. 


WILL    TRAINING.  H7 

The  pupil  must  be  trained  to  see,  to  hear,  to  think,  to 
remember,  to  speak,  to  write,  and  to  do  whatever  he 
undertakes  to  do,  with  accuracy.  This  discipline  in 
accuracy  corrects  the  tendency  to  guessing  or  exag- 
geration, or  "drawing  on  one's  imagination;"  checks 
the  impulse  to  tell  more  than  one  knows,  a  weakness 
closely  related  to  falsehood  ;  and  holds  the  pupil  steadily, 
not  only  to  the  learning  of  the  truth,  but  to  its  accurate 
expression.  It  is  thus  seen  that  accuracy  is  closely 
allied  to  truthfulness,  —  the  cardinal  moral  virtue.  In- 
deed, truthfulness  is  accuracy  in  word  and  deed,  —  the 
exact  conforming  of  one's  expression  of  facts  to  the 
facts  themselves. 

But  accuracy  in   school  duties   requires  attention,— 
the  holding  of  the  mind  persistently  to  the  thing  in 
hand,  whatever  this  may  be,  —  and  this  is  an      win 
act  of  the  will ;  more  accurately,  it  is  a  state    Training, 
of  the  will,  the  result  of  many  repeated  acts.     Hence 
the  securing  of  accuracy  in  any  direction  involves  a 
training  of  the  will,  and  accuracy  in  conduct  involves 
will  training  of  high  value. 

Much  has  been  claimed  in  recent  discussions  for  the 
moral  value  of  mechanical  accuracy,  as  in  the  manual 
arts.  Some  one  has  asserted  that  the  drawing  of  a 
figure  or  the  making  of  a  joint  is  a  positive  discipline  in 
truth-telling.  There  is  some  truth  in  this  Mechanical 
statement,  but  not  much  accuracy.  There  is  Accuracy, 
harmony  between  mechanical  accuracy  and  moral  accu- 
racy ;  but  this  harmony  is  not  identity,  as  is  assumed. 
In  drawing  a  figure  or  making  a  joint,  there  is  no  such 
play  of  moral  motives  as  is  involved  in  truth-telling.  A 
lack  of  mechanical  accuracy  may  serve  no  selfish  inter- 
est, while  truthfulness  may  require  the  heroic  resistance 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

of  selfish  impulses.  The  most  that  can  be  claimed  for 
mere  mechanical  accuracy  is  that  it  affords  a  valuable 
training  of  the  will,  including  attention  and  effort  to 
conform  to  an  ideal.  This  has  a  close  relation  to  accu- 
racy in  conduct,  and  so  has  some  moral  value.  It  is, 
however,  easy  to  claim  too  much  for  such  mechanical 
discipline.  What  the  school  needs  to  secure  is  accu- 
racy in  conduct,  in  word,  and  in  work,  —  a  triple  disci- 
pline of  the  will  of  high  moral  value. 

5.   SILENCE. 

The  fifth  of  these  school  virtues  is  silence,  —  the  sup- 
pression of  all  impulses,  and  a  resistance  to  all  tempta- 
tions to  make  unnecessary  noise.  This  is  another  of  the 
personal  virtues  that  is  included  in  the  general  virtue 
called  self-control.  It  includes  (i)  a  control  of  the  nat- 
ural impulse  to  talk,  and  otherwise  express  the  feelings 
of  the  moment,  —  in  some  aspects  an  animal  instinct; 
(2)  the  restraining  of  the  social  instinct,  stimulated  by 
the  presence  of  schoolmates  ;  and  (3)  the  quiet  regulation 
of  one's  conduct  under  divers  temptations. 

The  self-control  which  results  in  silence  has  great 
value  as  a  condition  of  intellectual  progress.  It  makes 
continuous  and  fruitful  thinking  possible,  and,  at  the. 

value  in     same  time,  it  avoids  the  unnecessary  distrac- 

schooi.  tion  of  the  attention  of  others,  thus  meeting 
the  conditions  of  one  of  the  most  important  disciplines 
of  the  school,  —  thoughtful  study.  It  also  promotes 
valuable  spiritual  ends  —  silence  being  the  essential 
condition  of  reflection,  self-knowledge,  reverence,  etc. 
The  self-control  involved  in  silence  is,  indeed,  the 
soil  in  which  some  of  the  highest  intellectual  and 
spiritual  virtues  grow. 


WILL    TRAINING.  1 19 

Silence  has  also  a  high  moral  value.     Much  of  the 
wrong  in  human  conduct  is  occasioned  by  a  hasty  ex- 
pression or  execution  of  impulse  and  passion.       Moral 
The    wrongdoer    loses    self-control,    and   for      value, 
the  time  the  clamors  of  impulse  or  passion  drown  the 
voice  of  reason   and   conscience.     What   is   needed    is 
the  will's  imperative  "  Hush  !  "  "Be  still !  "     Silence  is 
often  a  means  of  victory  to  the  moral  nature. 

This  discipline  of  silence  is  obviously  an  effective 
training  of  the  will,  —  a  training  in  the  direction  of  the 
cardinal  virtue  of  self-control,  so  important  in  the  regu- 
lation of  conduct.  It  is  a  training,  not  in  wm 
spasmodic  or  fitful  activity,  but  in  habitual  Training, 
self-mastery  and  self-repression.  When  silence  is  se- 
cured under  the  sense  of  obligation  to  others  and  to 
the  public,  —  in  this  case  the  school,  —  the  resulting 
training  of  the  will  is  a  needed  preparation  for  social 
and  civil  duties.  The  discipline  of  the  school  is  thus 
made  a  training  of  the  will  of  high  value. 

6.  INDUSTRY. 

The  sixth  of  these  school  virtues  is  industry  or  appli- 
cation. This  affords  a  training  of  the  will  in  a  direction 
opposite  to  silence.  Industry  involves  the  steady  put- 
ting-forth  of  energy  :  silence  is  largely  the  suppression 
of  activity.  Hence  the  training  of  the  will  afforded  by 
industry  is  positive.  It  calls  for  a  series  of  choices  be- 
tween alternatives,  the  doing  of  this  and  the  not-doing 
of  that,  and  a  continuous  execution  of  choices  and  pur- 
poses. It  involves  not  only  the  denial  of  desires  for 
play  or  other  gratification,  but  also  the  steady  putting- 
forth  of  activity  to  realize  ends  that  seem  remote,  and 
hence  not  imperative.  It  costs  a  high  exercise  of  self- 


I2O  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

control  to  sacrifice  present  ease  and  enjoyment  to  se- 
cure a  future  possible  good,  and  this  is  just  what  an 
intelligent  and  conscientious  application  to  school  work 
always  involves.  It  is  an  initiation,  as  Dr.  Harris 
claims,  to  the  cardinal  virtue  of  fortitude,  —  a  disci- 
pline that  prepares  one  "to  endure  hardness." 

Much  has  been  said,  of  late,  of  the  importance  of 
teaching  industry  in  the  schools,  by  which  term  is 
meant  the  industries  or  manual  occupations ;  and,  in 
the  advocacy  of  this  reform,  there  has  been  a  free  indul- 
industryin  gence  in  criticisms  of  the  present  school  re1- 
the  school,  gime.  The  school  has  been  referred  to  as  a 
place  where  industry  or  work  is  ignored,  and  idleness 
made  a  habit.  On  the  contrary,  every  good  school  is 
truly  an  apprentice-shop  where  pupils  acquire  the  habit 
of  industry,  whatever  the  self-denial  involved,  and  how- 
soever remote  the  reward.  The  doing  of  assigned  tasks 
at  the  time  and  in  the  time  allotted  for  the  purpose, 
the  filling  of  the  day  with  a  round  of  work  well  done, 
—  this  is  not  only  industry,  but  it  is  industry  of  a  high 
order.  The  school  excels  all  other  institutions  in  the 
training  in  industry  which  it  affords  the  young. 

Moreover,  the  discipline  of  the  modern  school  unites 
hand  exercises  with  mental  activity  in  a  succession  of 
industry  in  employments,  that  not  only  call   into  action 
the  Modem  the  several  mental  powers,  but  that  also  se- 
schooi.     cure  a  varie(j  exercise  of  the  will,  including 
always  the  one  essential  activity  called  attention,  atten- 
tion to  the  thing  in  hand  being  the  imperative  condition 
of  application  to  school  work. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  point  out  the  relation  which 
this  training  in  industry,  afforded  by  the  school,  sus- 
tains to  industrial  success  in  after  life.  All  the  pursuits 


WILL    TRAINING.  121 

of  life  require  this  habit  of  industry  which  the  school 
cultivates,  —  the  steady  application  to  one's  business, 
the  doing  of  the  right  thing  at  the  right  time. 

7.  OBEDIENCE. 

Another  of  these  school  virtues,  worthy  of  special 
consideration,  is  obedience,  —  a  prompt  and  implicit  com- 
pliance with  what  is  required.  Obedience  is  the  doing 
of  what  is  commanded,  and  the  not-doing  of  what  is 
forbidden ;  and  hence  it  involves  both  a  positive  and  a 
negative  discipline. 

Every  good  school  holds  its  pupils  to  the  duty  of 
prompt,  implicit,  and  cheerful  obedience.  The  organ- 
ization and  function  of  a  school  involves  the  its 
combined  action  of  its  pupils,  and  this  ele-  Necessity, 
ment  of  combination  necessitates  a  prompt  compliance 
with  directions.  Disobedience  is  an  arrest  of  progress. 
The  failure  of  one  pupil  to  be  prompt  in  action  may 
"  stop  the  wheels  "  and  arrest  the  movements  of  an 
entire  class ;  and  so  the  youngest  pupils  soon  feel  that 
orders,  whether  given  by  word  or  signal,  must  be  obeyed, 
and  they  soon  form  the  habit  of  prompt  obedience. 

The  notion  that  one  must  know  the  reason  of  a  com- 
mand before  it  is  his  duty  to  obey  it,  has  a  small  place 
in  effective  school  discipline.  There  is  a  good  reason 
for  every  wise  command  back  of  it,  but  the  sufficient 
reason  for  the  pupil's  obedience  is  the  command  itself. 
The  wise  teacher  will,  however,  often  give  the  reason 
for  what  he  requests ;  but  the  reason  will  be  given 
before,  not  after,  the  request.  Such  a  teacher  will 
also  make  many  requests,  and  rarely  issue  a  positive 
command. 

It  is  for  these  reasons  that  the  school  often  affords 


122  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

a  better  training  in   obedience  than  the  family.     The 

father  or  the  mother  may,  wisely  or  unwisely,  allow  the 

school  and  child  time  for  "  reflection,"  or,  more  properly, 

Family.  for  the  subsidence  of  feeling  ;  but,  in  a  great 
school,  there  must  be  no  delay,  no  questioning,  and  there 
can  be  none  without  an  interference  with  the  rights  of 
others  and  the  good  of  the  school.  It  is  feared  that 
few  parents  fully  realize  the  value  of  school  discipline 
in  this  one  direction.  Children  who  are  disobedient 
at  home,  or,  what  is  equally  culpable,  whose  obedience 
is  reluctant  and  questioning,  learn  at  school  to  obey 
promptly  and  cheerfully  what  is  required  ;  and  the  spirit 
and  habit  of  obedience  thus  acquired  often  become 
helpful  in  the  home. 

Moreover,  the  obedience  required  in  school  is  so 
obviously  in  harmony  with  what  the  pupil  ought  to  do, 

cheerful  that  there  is  little  occasion  for  questioning  or 
obedience,  doubt.  It  is  true  that  many  things  required 
even  in  the  best  schools  may  be  unnecessary  and  even 
useless  ;  but  the  pupil's  confidence  in  the  teacher, 
especially  when  inspired  by  love,  obviates  doubt,  and 
obedience  is  not  only  prompt  and  unquestioning,  but 
also  cheerful.  Indeed,  one  of  the  important  character- 
istics of  a  good  school  is  the  cheerful,  even  happy, 
response  of  the  pupils  to  all  that  is  required. 

It  is  obvious  that  this  discipline  in  obedience  involves 

a  valuable  training  of  the  will.     Indeed,  obedience  is 

Will       but  the  subordination  of  the  will  of  the  indi- 

Training     vidual  to  authority,  i.e.,  to  the  wish  or  com- 

invoived.  mand  of  authority  ;  and  hence  the  habit  of 
obedience  is  but  a  state  of  will.  When  obedience  be- 
comes mechanical  and  automatic,  it  has  no  further  dis- 
ciplinary value,  and  it  is  questionable  whether  obedience 


WILL    TRAINING.  123 

that  is  purely  automatic  has  a  moral  quality.  Aristotle 
taught,  that,  in  conforming  to  rule,  the  "deliberative 
preference"  was  essential  to  moral  action.  But  the 
establishing  of  an  automatic  condition  of  will  may 
involve  the  deliberative  purpose,  and  may  thus  afford  a 
valuable  moral  discipline.  It  is,  however,  important  to 
keep  in  mind  the  obvious  distinction  between  obedience 
in  mere  mechanical  activity  and  obedience  in  moral 
conduct ;  also  the  distinction  between  a  free  obedience 
and  mere  outer  conformity  to  what  is  required. 

It  seems  also  worthy  of  notice  that  the  authority  re- 
quiring obedience  may  be  personal,  that  of  the  parent, 
employer,  etc. ;    or  institutional,  that  of  the     Kinds  of 
school,  the  church,  etc. ;  or  civil,  that  of  the    Authority, 
state ;  or  divine,  that  of  the  Divine  Will.     The  higher 
authority  subordinates  the  lower;  and  the  highest  au- 
thority, the  Divine  Will,  subordinates  all  lower  authority, 
and  establishes  a  higher  law  as  the  supreme  rule  of 
human  conduct.     The  higher  the  authority,  the  more 
imperative  is  the  duty  of  implicit  obedience. 

OTHER  VIRTUES. 

There  are  other  school  results  the  attainment  of  which 
affords  an  excellent  training  of  the  will.  Several  of 
these  are  included  in  those  duties  called  duties  to  others, 
—  duties  related  to  others'  rights,  represented  by  justice ; 
duties  related  to  others'  needs,  represented  by  kind- 
ness, —  and  duty  to  ones  self,  represented  by  truthfulness. 

The  pupils  in  a  school  have  as  pupils  certain  rights, 
and  justice  requires  that  these  rights  shall  be  respected ; 
that  each  shall  receive  what  is  his  due,  and 
that  he  shall  render  to  others  what  is  their 
due.     School  life   affords  many  opportunities  for  the 


124  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

exercise  of  this  virtue,  and  this  may  be  secured  by  the 
very  discipline  of  the  school. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  duty  of  kindness,  though  the 
obligation  may  not  be  as  imperative  as  that  of  justice; 

and  yet  the  function  of  the  school  is  to  pro- 
Kindness.  ,  ..  . 

mote  human  welfare   rather  than  to  secure 

justice  between  man  and  man.  The  rights  of  the  child 
are  largely  born  of  its  needs;  and  among  the  child's 
fundamental  rights,  having  this  source,  are  nurture,  con- 
trol, guidance,  instruction;  and  these  are  all  specially 
recognized  by  the  school.  Indeed,  every  good  school 
is  pervaded  by  the  spirit  of  kindness,  courtesy,  sympa- 
thy, charity,  etc. 

Truthfulness  is  the  cardinal  virtue.  A  want  of  it  is 
not  merely  a  defect,  but  a  disaster.  "Without  truth 

Truthful-  there  can  be  no  other  virtue."  The  school 
ness.  should  faithfully  instill  into  the  minds  of  its 
pupils  a  sacred  regard  for  truth,  and  a  manly  hatred  of 
falsehood  in  all  its  forms  and  guises  ;  and  for  the  attain- 
ment of  these  ends  it  has  constant  opportunity.  Its  dis- 
cipline may  be  made  a  continued  apprenticeship  in  truth 
telling  and  truth  acting. 

But  the  school  may  also  afford  frequent  occasions  for 
evasion  and  deceit,  and  these  may  be  sadly  improved.1 
Pupils  may  make  false  reports  of  their  conduct,  of  the 
^reparation  of  their  lessons,  etc.  Indeed,  there  are  schools 

1  It  is  the  writer's  belief  that  no  one  practice  in  our  schools  is  doing 
so  much  to  undermine  the  integrity  of  pupils  as  written  examinations; 
and  this  is  specially  true  when  prizes,  honors,  promotions,  etc.,  depend 
on  the  results.  The  temptation  to  dishonesty  is  often  too  great  for  the 
virtue  of  the  pupils,  —  a  fact  not  always  overcome  even  by  the  vigilance 
of  the  examiners.  Few  are  aware  how  much  of  cheating  attends  the 
stated  written  examinations  in  our  schools  and  colleges,  especially  the 
colleges. 


WILL    TRAINING*  12$ 

in  which  the  notion  prevails  among  the  pupils  that  it  is 
less  culpable  to  deceive  a  teacher  than  to  deceive  a  class- 
mate or  other  person ;  but  such  a  notion  leads  directly 
to  falsehood.  The  pupils  who  act  on  the  belief  that  it 
is  right  to  cheat  in  school,  will  soon  cheat  out  of  school. 

The  school  should  be  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  hon- 
esty and  truthfulness.  It  should  inspire  its  pupils 
with  a  manly  resistance  to  all  temptations  to  deceive 
or  be  false.  Such  a  school  affords  a  training  of  the 
will  of  the  highest  value. 

But  the  virtues  represented  by  justice,  kindness,  and 
truthfulness,  though  most  important,  may  not  be  so 
directly  or  organically  involved  in  the  discipline  of  a 
school  as  are  the  seven  other  results  or  duties  to  which 
attention  has  been  specially  called,  and  which  may  with 
propriety  be  designated  as  school  virtues.  The  right 
practice  of  these  as  well  as  of  the  moral  virtues  affords 
a  training  of  the  will  of  great  value. 

MORAL  WORTH  OF  SCHOOL  DUTIES. 

It  may  be  properly  claimed  that  a  school  that  attains 
the  seven  results,  now  considered,  is  not  destitute  of 
valuable  moral  training;  and  yet  is  it  not  possible  to 
claim  too  much  in  this  direction  ?  It  does  not  require 
a  very  wide  observation  or  experience  to  show  that 
these  important  school  results  may  be  secured  by  the 
use  of  means  that  neither  train  the  will  in  virtuous 
action  nor  strengthen  character. 

Many  years  since,  the  writer,  in  a  goodly  company  of 
educators,  visited  Mammoth  Cave.  On  the  way  from 
the  railroad  station  to  the  mouth  of  the  cave, 

.          Illustration. 

several  miles  distant,  we  had  the  opportunity 

of  visiting  a  school  made  up  of  some  fifty  white  chil- 


126  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

dren,  in  charge  of  a  schoolmaster  of  the  old  type. 
The  pupils,  varying  in  age  from  six  to  sixteen  years,  as 
judged,  were  seated  on  high  benches  without  backs  or 
desks,  and  most  of  them  with  feet  dangling  in  the  air. 
With  one  exception,  they  were  all  studying  Webster's 
Speller  (the  veritable  "  blue-back  "  ),  with  eyes  on  book  ; 
and  save  a  gentle  swaying  of  the  body  backwards  and 
forwards,  and  a  moving  of  the  lips  as  the  eyes  passed 
from  letter  to  letter,  there  was  neither  movement  nor 
noise.  There  was  a  sort  of  rhythm  of  motion  and 
silence, — a  silence  that  could  be  felt,  an  order  that 
came  up  to  the  old  "pin-drop"  test.  In  a  corner  of 
the  room  were  several  whips  from  four  to  six  feet 
in  length.  Detecting  a  pupil's  furtive  glance  from  his 
book  to  the  strangers,  the  master  seized  one  of  the  rods, 
and,  darting  towards  the  lad,  brought  it  down  across 
his  shoulders,  shouting,  "  STUDY  ! "  and  the  swaying 
bodies  and  moving  lips  of  the  pupils  responded  with 
a  quicker  motion. 

Now,  here  were  punctuality,  regularity,  silence,  in- 
dustry, obedience,  etc.,  in  a  high  degree;  and  yet  the 
visitors  withdrew  from  the  room  with  little  admiration 
for  teacher  or  school. 

But  the  rod   is  not  the  only  means  by  which  the 

moral  efficiency  of  school  discipline  may  be  subverted. 

vital       The  writer  has  seen  more  than  one  school 

Question.  'm  which  regularity,  diligence  in  study,  and 
outer  obedience  were  secured  by  means  more  subver- 
sive of  true  moral  ends  than  the  fear  of  punishment. 
In  too  many  schools,  these  and  other  results  are  at- 
tained by  an  appeal  to  motives  which  enfeeble  the  will, 
weaken  moral  purpose,  and  undermine  character.  The 
vital  question  in  school  discipline  is  not  what  results 


WILL    TRAINING.  12? 

are  secured,  but  by  what  means  they  are  secured.  The 
moral  quality  of  a  deed  turns  on  the  motives  which 
prompted  it ; l  and  hence  the  moral  value  of  will  train- 
ing depends  on  the  motives  which  solicit  action,  and 
not  on  the  formal  action  itself. 

Let  us  take  as  illustrations  of  this  principle  two  or 
three  of  the  school  virtues  already  considered. 

The  disciplinary  value  of  silence  clearly  depends  on 
the  motives  which  secure  it.  The  difference  in  moral 
discipline  between  enforced  silence  and  that 

.      .          .        ,  Illustrations. 

which  is  the  result  of  self-control,  inspired 
not  only  by  self-interest,  but  also  by  a  sense  of  duty  to 
others,  and  especially  to  the  school,  is  too  obvious  to 
require  elucidation.  The  same  distinction  is  seen  be- 
tween silence  that  is  bought  by  a  promised  reward,  and 
that  which  flows  from  a  clear  view  of  self-interest,  and 
especially  from  a  desire  to  promote  the  best  interest 
of  the  school.  Self-control  is  virtuous  when  noise  is 
recognized  as  an  interference  with  the  rights  of  others ; 
and  surely  it  cannot  be  difficult  for  even  a  child  to 
realize,  in  some  degree,  the  relation  of  self-control  and 
self-denial  to  such  worthy  ends. 

There  is  a  similar  distinction  between  enforced  in- 
dustry and  that  which  flows  from  a  desire  for  knowledge 
or  for  present  or  future  success.  (All  experience  shows 
that  the  keener  the  pupil's  interest  in  study, 

J     Application. 

the  more  satisfactory  his  progress.     Interest 
is  the  condition  of  attention,  and  attention  is  essential 
to  learning.     Indeed,  true  learning  is  possible  only  to 
the  willing  mind.  J  The  difference  in  the  moral  results 
of  enforced  or  purchased  application  and  that  which  is 

1  An  important  condition  of  proving  a  criminal  act  is  to  find  a  motive 
for  it.  The  absence  of  motive  is  a  presumption  of  innocence. 


128  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

free,  voluntary,  and  self-directed,  is  even  greater  than 
the  difference  in  the  intellectual  results.  The  marked 
distinction  in  the  character  of  the  serf  and  the  yeoman 
is  an  historic  illustration  of  this  fact. 

This  distinction  is  even  more  marked  in  the  exercise 

of  the  virtue  of  obedience.      It  has  already  been  shown 

(p.  109)  that  the  obedience  secured  by  fear  has  no  such 

moral  efficiency  as   the  obedience  prompted 

Obedience.     , 

by  a  sense  of  duty.  Obedience  best  meets 
ethical  conditions  when  it  is  free  and  voluntary;  but 
obedience  may  be  bought  as  well  as  forced,  and  the  use 
of  such  a  motive  is  even  more  subversive  of  moral  ends 
than  fear.  When  a  mother  begins  to  hire  her  child  to 
comply  with  her  wishes,  she  invites  a  disobedient  spirit, 
and  a  speedy  loss  of  control  is  assured. 

Obedience  to  rightful  authority  is  a  moral  obliga- 
tion, —  an  obligation  that  lies  at  the  foundation  of 
social  and  civil  order,  and  the  well-being  of  the  individ- 
ual ;  and  it  is  only  when  obedience  flows  freely  from 
this  source  that  it  has  its  highest  disciplinary  value. 
It  is  an  important  function  of  school  training  to  quicken 
this  sense  of  obligation,  and  make  it  regal  in  the  pupil's 
life.  This  only  can  make  obedience  free  and  cheerful, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  afford  the  will  that  training  in 
moral  action  that  makes  character  strong  and  self- 
centered. 

The  same  is  true  of  all  school  results.  The  moral 
influence  of  their  attainment  depends  chiefly  on  the 
motives  which  prompt  the  pupils'  efforts.  Regularity, 
order,  application,  etc.,  may  be  attained  without  the 
will's  response  to  right  motives,  and  hence  they  may 
not  be  attended  with  moral  uplift  and  growth.  What- 
ever is  done  from  a  low  or  wrong  motive  enfeebler  the 


WILL    TRAINING.  I2Q 

moral  nature,  and  this  is  true  whatever  may  be  the 
intellectual  or  mechanical  excellence  of  the  result. 
The  man  who  engraves  bank  notes  for  the  purpose  of 
issuing  counterfeit  money  is  not  morally  ennobled  by 
the  superior  skill  of  his  workmanship. 


130  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

SCHOOL  INCENTIVES. 
PRINCIPLES. 

WE  have  thus  reached  the  important  principle  that 
the  moral  efficiency  of  school  discipline  depends  prima- 
rily  on  the  character  of  the  motives  by  which  its  ends  are 
secured. 

If  these  motives  are  high  and  worthy,  the  will  is 
thereby  freed  from  bondage  to  low  and  selfish  desires, 
and  character  is  strengthened  and  ennobled.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  these  motives  are  low  and  selfish,  the  power 
of  the  will  for  virtuous  action  is  enfeebled,  and  character 
weakened. 

This  principle  sheds  a  clear  light  on  the  question  of 

school   incentives ;    i.e.,  the  incentives  to  be  used  in 

securing  school   results.     It  shows  that  no  temporary 

interest  in  study,  and  no  external  propriety 

Incentives.  \ 

of  conduct,  can  compensate  for  the  habitual 
subjection  of  the  will  to  the  dominancy  of  selfish  mo- 
tives. Howsoever 'fair  the  results  attained  may  appear, 
the  outcome  of  such  training  in  the  life  will  be  moral 
weakness  and  failure.  No  school  training  will  stand 
the  decisive  test  of  right  living  that  does  not  subject 
the  will  to  habitual  subordination  to  what  Coleridge 
calls  the  imperative  ought,  the  last  word  in  the  vocab- 
ulary of  duty. 

An    intelligent    application   of  this   principle  to  the 
details  of  school  discipline  requires  a  clear  understand- 
Nature  of    mg  °f  the  nature  of  incentives,  and  especially 
incentives.   of  the  distinction  between  natural  and  artifi- 
cial incentives,  —  a  distinction  of  great  practical  value. 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  13  I 

What  is  meant  by  an  incentive?  Every  rational 
action  has  an  end  or  object,  whose  attainment  affords  a 
resulting  satisfaction.  When  this  object  is  perceived 
by  the  mind,  there  is  awakened  a  corresponding  desire 
for  it ;  and  this  awakened  desire  becomes  an  impulse 
or  incitant  to  effort  to  attain  such  object.  The  desires 
that  thus  incite  or  impel  man  to  effort  are  called 
motives  or  incentives^ 

When  the  desired  object  is  the  immediate  result  or 
consequence  of  the  effort,  the  incentive  is  said  to  be 
natural.  Knowledge,  for  example,  is  the  Naturaland 
natural  result  or  consequence  of  study,  and  Artificial 
hence  a  desire  for  knowledge  is  a  natural  Incentives- 
incentive  to  study.  When  the  desired  object  has  no 
such  consequential  relation  to  the  effort  put  forth,  the 
incentive  is  said  to  be  artificial.  If,  for  example,  a 
father  should  promise  his  son  a  fishing  excursion  on 
Saturday  as  a  reward  for  faithful  study  during  the 
week,  the  incentive  would  be  artificial,  a  fishing  excur- 
sion not  being  a  natural  result  or  consequence  of 
faithful  study. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  natural  incentives  are  desires  for 
objects  which  attend  effort  as  its  natural  result  or  con- 
sequence, and  that  artificial  incentives  are  desires  for 
objects  which  are  not  the  natural  result  of  effort.  In 
other  words,  a  natural  incentive  is  a  desire  for  an  object 
which  is  the  natural  result  or  consequence  of  effort, 
while  an  artificial  incentive  is  a  desire  for  an  object 
which  is  thrust  between  effort  and  its  natural  conse- 
quence. Artificial  incentives  are,  in  a  sense,  substitutes 

1  The  term  "  incentive  "  is  used  indiscriminately  for  the  object  desked 
|  and  the  desire  itself,  and  often  for  both,  since  practically  it  is  difficult  to 
\separate  the  object  and  the  related  inciting  desire. 


132  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

for  natural  incentives  ;  and  as  such  they  may  become 
the  immediate  ends  of  effort,  thus  diverting  attention 
from  true  ends. 

All  incentives  are  either  natural  or  artificial ;  and 
this  simple  classification  affords  an  excellent  basis  for 
the  practical  study  of  incentives  as  an  element  of  school 
discipline.  Attention  is  invited  to  a  careful  consider- 
ation of  each  class,  reversing  the  order  given  above. 

ARTIFICIAL  INCENTIVES. 

The  artificial  incentives  used  in  school  include,  — 

1.  Prizes,    as    medals,    books,    class    honors,    merit 
tickets,  etc. 

2.  Privileges,    as    holidays,    early    dismissals    from 
school,  "  honor  seats,"  positions  as  monitors,  etc. 

3.  Immunities,  as  exemptions  from  tasks,  class  exer- 
cises, etc. 

These  several  incentives  are  not  only  artificial,  but,\ 
as  will  be  obvious,  they  are  the  lowest  motives  ordina-  \ 
rily  used  in  schools,  the  fear  motives  possibly  excepted.   • 
They  were  once  widely  used,  even  in  the  best  schools ; 
and  they  are  still   used  where  the  question  of  moral 
training,  and  especially  of  motives  as  a  factor  in  such 
training,  has  not  received  due  attention. 

It  must  be  conceded,  at  the  outset;  that  these  incen- 
tives do  not  lack  power.     Experience  shows  that  they 
may  be  so  incorporated  into  the  discipline  of  a  school, 
Results  in    and  so  intensified,  as  to  become  its  very  life, 
character.    .  _  the  all-absorbing  end  of  desire  and  effort ; 
but  this  fact  does  not  determine  their  true  value  as  a 
means  of   school  training.      What  are  their  results  in 
character?     This  is  the  one  supreme  and  decisive  test 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES.  133 

of  all  means  used  in  the  discipline  of  a  school ;  and  to 
this  test  let  us  subject  the  several  incentives  named 
above. 

i.   THE  PRIZE  SYSTEM. 

The  term  "  prize  "  is  here  used  to  designate  not  only 
such  rewards  for  superiority  in  attainment  and  conduct 
as  medals,  books,  and  other  articles  of  pecuniary  value, 
but  also  class  honors,  merit  tickets,  badges,  etc.  As 
thus  used,  the  term  includes  not  only  prizes  proper, 
but  formal  honors  of  all  kinds. 

Prizes  may  be  bestowed  (i)  for  superiority  over  all 
competitors,  or  (2)  for   excellence  as  deter-       How 
mined  by  the  reaching  of  a  given  or  prescribed    bestowed, 
standard  or  by  the  accomplishing  of  a  given  feat  or  task. 

The  characteristic  feature  of  the  first  plan  —  the  prize 
system  proper  —  is  a  contest  between  two  or  more  com- 
petitors for  the  offered  prize  ;  and,  though  all  may  strife 
with  equal  fidelity,  only  one  can  win  it.  This  contest 
involves  not  only  competition,  but  also  emulation,  with  a 
tendency  to  rivalry,  attended  too  often  with  envy  and 
unkind  feelings. 

The  objections  to  the  prize  system  are  many  and 
serious.  An  obvious  one  is  the  fact  that  it  is  not  pos- 
sible, especially  in  schools  employing  several  teachers, 
to  avoid  injustice*  Few  things  in  school  administra- 
tion are  more  difficult  than  the  determining  objections  to 
of  the  comparative  value  of  the  attainments  of  Prizes, 
pupils.  What  is  the  comparative  value  of  knowledge, 
power,  and  skill  as  scholastic  results  ?  Which  is  the 
superior  knowledge,  that  disclosed  by  verbal  memory, 
or  that  disclosed  by  thought  ?  What  is  the  compara- 
tive value  of  the  several  branches  of  study  ?  Which 


134  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

shall  be  ranked  highest,  the  thought  studies  (as  arith- 
metic and  grammar),  or  the  so-called  information  studies 
(as  geography  and  history),  or  the  art  studies  (as  draw- 
ing, writing,  and  music)  ?  What  results  in  each  branch 
shall  be  considered  as  possessing  most  worth  ?  How 
are  the  attainments  in  observation  and  laboratory  exer- 
cises to  be  determined,  and  how  compared  with  those 
in  book  studies  ? 

These  questions  are  sufficient  to  indicate  the  difficul- 
ties involved  in  determining  an  intelligent  basis  for  the 
comparison  of  scholastic  attainments ;  and  there  are 
uncertain  like  difficulties,  possibly  greater,  in  the  actual 
Basis.  comparison  of  results.  The  writer  has  some 
acquaintance  with  the  inside  work  of  several  colleges 
and  schools,  where  prizes  are  annually  awarded  for  sup- 
posed superiority  in  scholarship  ;  and  he  is  confident 
that  neither  the  standard  of  excellence  adopted,  nor  the 
means  used  in  determining  results,  will  stand  the  test 
of  intelligent  criticism. 

It  is  plain  that  there  can  be  no  intelligent  comparison 
of  results  except  on  the  same  basis  and  by  the  same  means. 
These  essential  conditions  are  only  possible  when  the 
Essential     pupils  who  are  competing  for  prizes  pursue 
conditions    the  same  studies,  under  the  same  teachers, 
wanting.    an(j  when  ^G[T   standing   is  determined  by 
the  same  tests  made  by  the  same  persons,  —  conditions 
now  existing  in  few  high  schools  and  colleges.     The  in- 
troduction of  different  courses  of  study  and  the  allowing 
of  elections  in  each  course,  the  division  of  classes  into 
sections  and  their  instruction  by  different  teachers,  etc., 
have  destroyed  the  uniformity  of  conditions  on  which 
the  prize  system  was  originally  based  ;  and  it  is  high 
time  that  this  important  fact  was  recognized  by  school 
and  college  authorities. 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES.  135 

The  awarding  of  prizes  or  honors  on  attainments  in 
different  courses  of  study,  with  few  common  studies, 
and  these  taught  by  different  teachers,  not  only  involves 
an  obvious  injustice,  but  it  is  little  less  than  injustice 
a  farce.  Nor  does  it  make  much  difference  involved, 
whether  the  comparative  attainments  of  the  pupils  are 
determined  by  class  marks  or  estimates,  or  by  exami- 
nation results,  or  by  both  combined.  Even  uniform 
examinations  give  no  uniformity  of  result  when  the 
papers  are  read  by  different  persons.1  Little  reliance 
can  be  placed  on  comparisons  of  pupils'  attainments 
when  these  are  determined  by  different  persons  ;  and 
this  is  true,  whatever  the  method  used.  There  may  be 
an  approach  to  accuracy  when  the  attainments  compared 
are  in  a  given  branch,  taught  by  one  teacher,  and  under 
like  conditions. 

What  is  said  above  of  the  comparison  of  scholastic 
attainments  is  equally  true  of  the  attempt  to  compare 
conduct.  Such  mechanical  results  as  punctuality  and 
regularity  may  be  recorded  and  compared;  but  excel- 
lence in  such  virtues  as  neatness,  accuracy,  comparison 
silence,  industry,  and  obedience,  —  to  say  of  conduct, 
nothing  of  truthfulness,  kindness,  courtesy,  charity,  jus- 
tice, etc.,  —  escape  all  comparative  tests.  Hence  the 
usual  mode  of  comparing  pupils'  conduct  is  by  the  neg- 
ative test  of  demerit,  and  no  thoughtful  teacher  would 
venture  to  offer  a  prize  for  superiority  in  conduct  thus 
determined.  It  is  of  course  easy  to  make  such  general 
estimates  of  conduct  in  school  as  excellent,  or  good,  or 
poor ;  and  this  may  be  well,  provided  no  rewards  are 

1  The  writer  has  had  the  opportunity  of  comparing  the  results  of  written 
examinations  when  the  papers  are  read  by  different  persons.  The  differ- 
ence in  marking  same  papers  has  been  from  10%  to  30%. 


136  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

offered  for  superiority.  The  awarding  of  prizes  as  in- 
centives to  good  conduct  is  "evil,  and  only  evil,  and 
that  continually." 

Another  objection  to  the  prize  system  is  the  fact  that 
it  serves  as  an  incentive  to  only  a  few  of  the  pupils  in 
any  school  or  class  ;  and  these,  as  a  rule,  are  the  very 
pupils  that   do  not   need  any  artificial  incitement.     It 
incentive  to   requires,  at  most,  but  a  few  weeks  to  disclose 
Few  Pupils,  to  the  majority  of  the  pupils  in  a  class  that 
they  "  stand  no  chance,"  and,  as  a  consequence,  active 
competition  is  soon  narrowed  to  two  or  three  pupils ; 
and  not  infrequently  the  superior  gifts  and  advantages 
.of  one  pupil  so  clearly  indicate  his  superior  standing, 
that  he  has  no  earnest  competitor.     It  is  thus  seen  tha 
the  prize  system  is   based  on  a  competitive  principle 
which,  in  practice,  does  not  secure  general  competition 
The  very  pupils  who  may  most  need  stimulation  are  no 
touched  by  the  system,  or,  if  touched,  they  are  discour- 
aged by  it.     The  most  that  can  be  claimed  for  the  sys- 
tem is,  that  it  may  cause  a  very  few  pupils  at  the  head 
of  a  class  to  attain  higher  excellence  in  their  studies, 
especially  in  minute  details;  but f this  result  is  usually 
secured  at   a   sacrifice  of  what   is   more  important,— 
broad  attainments  and  a  scholarly  spirit. 

This  leads  to  the  decisive  objection  to  the  prize  sys- 
tem ;  to  wit,  its  evil  influence.     It  is  not  only  useless 
Evil        for  some  nine  tenths  of  the  pupils  in  a  class, 
influence.     but  for  the  remaining  tenth,  more  or  less,  it 
is    mischievous.     It   not   only  interferes  with  the  effi- 
ciency of  worthier  incentives,  but  it  makes  a  constant 
appeal  to  the  principle  of  emulation,  which   so  easily 
passes  over  into  envy  and  other  wrong  feelings.     Reid 
defines  emulation  as  "the  desire  of  superiority  to  our 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  137 

rivals  in  any  pursuit,"  and  classes  it  among  the  malevo- 
lent affections.  But  the  objection  to  the  prize  system 
is  not  materially  lessened  if  it  be  conceded  that  emula- 
tion is  a  natural  motive,  and  of  itself  not  wrong.  If  a 
natural  incentive,  it  stands  too  low  in  the  scale  to  have 
much  moral  efficiency,  and,  besides,  it  is  so  closely  asso- 
ciated with  a  group  of  selfish  and  malevolent  feelings, 
that  a  constant  appeal  to  it  is  hazardous.  It  is  not  only 
easily  abused,  but  it  is  likely  to  be  abused  when  made  a 
part  of  a  system  of  discipline. 

Horace  Mann  thus  depicts  the  results  of  emulation  as 
a  motive  force  in  education  : l  — 

"  I  instance  one  of  the  motive  forces  which,  for  the  last  fifty  or 
a  hundred  years,  has  been  mainly  relied  on  in  our  schools,  acade- 
mies, and  colleges,  as  the  stimulus  to  intellectual  effort,  and  which 
has  done  more  than  everything  else  to  cause  the  madness  and  the 
profligacy  of  those  political  and  social  rivalries  that  now  convulse 
the  land.  Let  us  take  [for  example]  a  child  who  has  only  a  mod- 
erate love  of  learning,  but  an  inordinate  passion  for  praise  and 
place ;  and  we  therefore  allure  him  to  study  by  the  enticements  of . 
precedence  and  applause.  If  he  will  surpass  all  his  fellows,  we/ 
advance  him  to  the  post,  and  signalize  him  with  the  badges  of  dis-l 
tinction,  and  never  suffer  the  siren  of  flattery  to  cease  the  enchantA 
ment  of  her  song.  If  he  ever  has  any  compassionate  misgivings  J 
in  regard  to  the  effect  which  his  own  promotion  may  have  upon 
his  less  brilliant,  though  not  less  meritorious,  fellow-pupils,  we  theri^ 
seek  to  withdraw  his  thoughts  from  this  virtuous  channel,  and  to 
turn  them  to  the  selfish  contemplation  of  his  own  brilliant  fortunes 
in  future  years.  If  waking  conscience  ever  whispers  in  his  ear  that 
that  pleasure  is  dishonorable  which  gives  pain  to  the  innocent,  then 
we  dazzle  him  with  the  gorgeous  vision  of  triumphant  honors  and 
applauding  multitudes :  and  when,  in  after  life,  this  victim  of  false 
influences  deserts  a  righteous  cause  because  it  is  declining,  and 
joins  an  unrighteous  one  because  it  is  prospering,  and  sets  his 
name  in  history's  pillory,  to  be  scoffed  and  jeered  at  for  ages,  then 

1  Lectures  and  Reports  on  Education,  p.  130. 


138  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

we  pour  out  lamentations,  in  prose  and  verse,  over  the  moral  sui- 
cide !  And  yet,  by  such  a  course  of  education,  he  was  prepared 
beforehand,  like  a  skillfully  organized  .machine,  to  prove  a  traitor 
and  an  apostate  at  that  very  conjuncture." 

The  prize  system  not  only  subordinates  the  will  to 
selfish  motives,  but  it  often  so  intensifies  effort  to  gain- 
Health  the  coveted  prize  or  honor  as  to  endanger 
endangered,  health  and  future  usefulness.  Its  strongest  j 
appeal  is  usually  to  bright  and  over-ambitious  pupils, 
who,  as  a  class,  are  nervous  and  excitable,  and  easily 
stimulated  to  over-exertion.  The  prize  system  has  an 
appalling  list  of  victims  who  have  died  early,  or  are  "  in- 
valids for  life."  Superiority  in  scholastic  attainments 
is  dearly  bought  at  the  sacrifice  of  health  and  physical 
vigor. 

The  writer  recently  had  a  conversation  with  a  father 

whose  daughter  is  standing  at  the  head  of  her  class  (as 

standing  is  determined)  in  a  great  high  school. 

Illustration. 

At  the  close  of  the  first  year  she  was  so  com- 
pletely "broken  down,"  that  he  took  her  to  the  seashore 
for  several  weeks  to  regain  strength.  At  the  time  of 
our  conversation,  she  was  closing  her  second  year,  pale 
and  nervous ;  and  the  father  was  doing  his  best  "  to 
keep  her  up,"  as  he  expressed  it,  until  vacation  should 
bring  her  needed  relief.  Nor  is  this  prospective  "  medal 
pupil "  a  rare  exception.  Few  of  the  medal  or  honor 
pupils  known  to  the  writer  in  the  past  few  years,  have 
left  school  or  college  in  good  health,  this  being  specially 
true  of  the  girls.1 

1  Since  writing  the  above  paragraph,  the  writer  was  in  company  with 
several  prominent  educators,  who  successively  told  of  the  death  of  young 
ladies  who,  to  their  personal  knowledge,  had  sacrificed  health  and  life  in 
winning  class  honors;  and,  soon  after  the  writing  of  these  words,  a  daily 
paper  announced  the  death  of  the  young  lady  referred  to  above,  closing 
with  this  significant  remark,  "  She  was  the  '  first  pupil '  in  her  class." 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  139 

The  awarding  of  prizes  on  the  second  basis  described 
above  —  a  basis  not  involving  competition  —  is  not  as 
objectionable  as  the  prize  system  proper.  second 
The  plan  includes  such  practices  as  the  offer-  Plan- 
ing  of  prizes  (i)  to  pupils  who  attain  a  given  result  in 
a  specified  time ;  (2)  to  those  who  reach  a  given  class 
standing;  (3)  to  those  who  are  not  absent  or  tardy  in 
a  month  or  term,  etc.  It  is  seen  that  while  these 
devices  may  involve  a  trial  of  one's  ability,  or  skill,  or 
fidelity,  with  a  desire  for  success,  they  do  not  necessa- 
rily involve  the  desire  to  surpass  others,  and  hence  may 
be  free  from  emulation  and  rivalry.  The  incentive  in- 
volved may  be  characterized  as  a  desire  for  excellence 
without  reference  to  any  other  person  as  surpassed. 
All  of  the  pupils  in  the  class  or  school  may  attain  the 
required  result,  and  no  one's  success  is  in  the  way  of 
another's  success. 

While  this  mode  of  awarding  prizes  may  be  free  from 
competition  and  emulation,  it  is  still  open  to  the  serious 
objection  that  it  substitutes  artificial  incen- 

Objection. 

tives  for  natural,  thus  obscuring  the  true 
ends  of  study,  and  subverting  the  normal  action  of  the 
will.  Its  effects  in  character  will  be  more  fully  shown 
below,  in  considering  the  granting  of  privileges  as  in- 
centives,—  a  system  which  is  usually  based  on  this 
mode  of  determining  superiority  or  merit. 

It  seems  proper  to  note,  in  passing,  that  rewards  or 
presents  bestowed  after  praiseworthy  results  have  been 
attained  by  pupils,  and  without  prior  promise     Rewards 
of  their  bestowal,  do  not  fall  under  the  prize        not 
system.     It  may  also  be  questioned  whether    Promised- 
this    mode    of   rewarding   pupils    for    successful    effort 
properly  comes  under  the  system  of  artificial  incentives, 


140  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

since  the  reward,  whatever  it  may  be,  does  not  enter  into 
the  pupils'  efforts  as  a  motive.  They  are  at  most  only 
artificial  rewards,  not  incentives ;  and  their  influence, 
whatever  it  may  be,  can  only  affect  the  pupil's  future 
effort.  The  objections  urged  above  to  prizes  and  honors 
do  not  apply  necessarily  to  such  rewards.  A  present 
to  a  pupil  without  prior  promise  is  simply  a  token  of  the 
teacher's  appreciation,  and,  as  'such,  it  may  help  the 
pupil  to  a  higher  appreciation  of  the  real  results  for 
which  he  is  striving,  and  thus  increase  their  power  as 
natural  incentives.  Our  appreciation  of  any  attainment 
is  increased  by  its  known  appreciation  by  others,  and 
especially  by  those  in  whose  superior  judgment  we  have 
confidence.  This  fact  is  sometimes  urged  in  defense 
of  the  prize  system,  but  it  neither  removes  nor  lessens 
the  serious  objections  to  its  use.  There  are  certainly 
better  ways  of  increasing  a  pupil's  appreciation  of  school 
attainments. 

2.  PRIVILEGES. 

The  granting  of  privileges  as  rewards  for  good  con- 
duct or  scholastic  attainments  is  now  more  common  in 
American  schools  than  the  awarding  of  prizes  proper, 
this  being  specially  true  in  elementary  schools ;  and, 
increasingly,  privileges  are  granted  for  the  reaching  of 
a  given  standard  of  excellence  rather  than  for  surpass- 
ing others.  The  reward  is  thus  put  within  the  possible 
reach  of  all  the  pupils  in  the  school  or  class,  and  no 
pupil's  success  stands  in  the  way  of  another's  success. 
This  makes  little  appeal  to  emulation,  involving  compe- 
tition, and  it  wholly  avoids  personal  rivalry,  —  desirable 
results  in  school  life. 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  141 

This  system  of  artificial  rewards  may  be  best  shown 
by  a  concrete  example,  of  which  we  once  had  personal, 
knowledge.  The  principal  of  a  grammar  Illustration 
school  adopted  the  plan  of  granting  a  quar- 
ter of  a  holiday  to  all  pupils  in  his  school  who  were  not 
tardy  during  the  month,  another  quarter  to  pupils  who  i 
were  not  absent,  another  quarter  to  those  who  did  notj- 
whisper  (their  statement  being  taken),  and  another 
quarter  to  those  who  did  not  "  fail  in  a  lesson,"  thus 
making  it  possible  for  a  pupil  to  earn  an  exemption  from 
school  duties  one  day  in  each  month.  This  holiday  was 
made  the  paramount  motive  of  effort  and  self-restraint, 
and  the  pupils  were  fired  with  zeal  to  secure  it.  They 
ran  for  squares  to  reach  the  school  on  time  ;  they 
crammed  for  recitations  and  monthly  reviews ;  they 
resorted  to  all  sorts  of  subterfuges  to  avoid  whispering, 
especially  the  appearance  of  it,  and  it  was  hinted  that 
they  were  not  always  truthful  in  their  reports.  In 
brief,  the  pupils  worked  for  the  monthly  holiday  as  for 
wages,  and  the  school  attained  a  high  standing  in  punc- 
tuality, regularity,  order,  and  application.  The  artificial 
system  seemed  to  the  principal  and  his  assistants  a 
great  success  —  even  a  decided  triumph  in  school  ad- 
ministration. 

It  must  suffice  to  add,  that  when  the  pupils  from 
this  school  entered  the  high  school,  where  artificial 
incentives  were  not  used,  they  proved  as  a  class,  in 
both  application  and  conduct,  the  weakest  pupils  in  the 
school.  It  took  the  best  part  of  a  year  for  worthier 
motives  to  become  controlling  and  otherwise  effective. 

Another  plan  for  the  artificial  stimulation  of  pupils 
is  the  seating  of  them,  say,  monthly  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  indicate  their  standing.  For  this  purpose  the  seats 


142  SCHOOL   M 

in  a  school  may  be  divided  into,  say,  four  sections ; 
and  the  first  assigned  for  a  month  to  the  pupils  with 

Honor      the  highest   standing  the  prior  month ;  the 

seats-j  second,  to  pupils  with  standing  next  in  rank ; 
the  third,  to  the  pupils  next  in  rank ;  and  the  fourth, 
to  the  pupils  with  the  lowest  standing. 

It  is  easy  for  an  enthusiastic  teacher  to  "work"  such 
a  device  as  this,  and  make  it  a  strong  incentive  to  effort. 
I  have  seen  the  desire  to  occupy  "  honor  seats  "  (first 
section)  made  a  controlling  motive,  especially  of  the 
more  advanced  pupils,  who  worked  for  the  distinction 
with  great  fidelity  and  zeal ;  and  the  pupils  less  advanced 
were  impelled  by  a  desire  to  avoid  a  seat  in  the  lowest 
section,  —  by  contrast,  dishonor  seats. 

We  have  never  visited  a  school  using  this  device  with- 
out feeling  a  deep  sympathy  for  the  pupils  seated  in  the 
injustice  lowest  section,  some  of  whom  deserve  higher 
involved,  commendation  than  those  in  the  seats  of 
honor.  How  often  it  is  true  that  the  low  standing  of 
pupils  is  not  due  to  a  lack  of  fidelity  or  praiseworthy 
effort,  but  to  circumstances  beyond  their  control,  as  a 
lack  of  opportunity  for  home  study,  the  absence  of 
needed  assistance,  etc.  What  a  contrast  there  is  in  the 
home  advantages  of  the  pupils  in  any  public  school ! 

More  frequently,  perhaps,  a  failure  to  reach  a  high 

standing  is  due  to  a  lack  of  natural  ability,  especially 

Dull        ability  to  do  easily  what  is  required  in  school ; 

pupils.  anci  certainly  dullness  is  not  a  dishonor, 
though  it  may  be  a  misfortune.  Nothing  in  school 
management  is  more  clearly  reprehensible  than  the 
placing  of  a  stigma,  directly  or  indirectly,  on  dullness 
or  other  accident  of  birth.  All  pupils  enter  a  school 
with  equal  rights,  and  are  entitled  to  equal  considera 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES.  143 

tion.  The  dull  child,  whose  standing  does  not  crowd 
"  100,"  has  as  much  right,  if  he  be  faithful,  to  look  to 
the  school  for  kindness  and  honor  as  the  brightest.  No 
teacher  has  the  right  to  put  a  faithful  child,  though  dull, 
in  a  seat  on  which  rests  a  shadow  of  dishonor.  There 
is  no  place  in  any  school  for  injustice  or  inhumanity. 
No  wise  parent  would  willingly  send  a  dull  child  to  a 
school  where  dullness  is  made  a  disgrace.1 

3.  IMMUNITIES. 

Closely  related  to  the  granting  of  privileges  as 
rewards  are  exemptions  from  duties  or  requirements, 
called  immunities. 

The  most  common  form  of  this  incentive  —  and  this 
happily  not  common  —  is  the  exemption  of  pupils  from 
final  reviews  or  examinations,  whose  standing  during 
the  term  or  year  is,  say,  90%  or  more.     The    Exemption 
objection  to  this  practice  is  not  the  remitting  from  school 
of  the  examination,  since  this  may  be  wise,      Duties- 
but  the  use  of  such  remission  as  an  incentive.     This 

1  "  The  minister  of  education  of  Germany  has  addressed  to  all  school 
councils  a  circular  in  which  he  advocates  the  abolition  of  the  so-called 
*  Abschluss-klassen '  for  backward  children.  He  points  out  that  children 
receive  but  an  imperfect  education  in  this  class,  that  its  very  existence 
makes  teachers  more  inclined  to  neglect  the  backward  pupils  in  all  other 
classes,  and  that  being  placed  in  such  a  class  has  a  bad  moral  effecU  It 
often  happens  that  children  are  treated  in  this  way  from  no  fault  of  their 
own,  but  either  because  they  have  been  ill,  or  neglected  at  home,  or  be- 
cause they  are  mentally  weak.  Often,  too,  they  are  backward  in  school 
because  they  help  their  parents.  In  any  case,  it  is  unjust  that  they  should 
be  looked  down  upon  by  the  other  children,  and  separated  from  their  com- 
panions. .  .  .  The  minister  considers  that  the  course  of  instruction  should 
be  so  modified  that  all  children  might  benefit  from  it,  not  that  the  weaker 
pupils  should  be  handicapped  for  the  sake  of  the  more  gifted."  —  Popular 
Educator,  March,  1893. 


144  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

use  implies  not  only  that  the  examination  is  of  no 
special  advantage  to  the  pupil,  but  that  it  is  an  evil  that 
may  be  wisely  avoided !  This  may  be  true,  and  doubt- 
less is  true  as  examinations  are  often  conducted  and  the 
results  used  ;  but  it  would  seem  to  be  unwise  for  a  school 
to  treat  its  own  requirement  as  an  evil.  The  granting 
of  immunity  from  any  school  duty  as  a  reward  necessa- 
rily carries  with  it  an  implication  that  tends  to  make 
such  duty  repugnant.  No  thoughtful  teacher  will  ever 
treat  any  school  obligation  or  task  as  an  evil  that  may 
be  wisely  shunned.  Such  a  course  necessarily  tends  to 
bring  school  requirements  into  disfavor,  and  to  lower 
the  pupil's  estimate  of  the  practical  value  of  school 
advantages. 

A  like  difficulty  is   involved  in  the  assigning  of   a 
school  task  as  a  punishment ;  as,  for  example,  the  writ- 
ing of  a  given  number  of  words  as  a  penalty  for  idleness  ; 
school       tne  s°lvmg   °f    problems    for  tardiness  ;  or, 
Tasks  as      what  is  even  more  ridiculous,  the  memorizing 
Penalties.     Q£   Scripture  verses   for   disobedience !     No 
school  duty  should  be  made  unpleasant  by  its  association 
with  the  idea  of  punishment.     On  the  contrary,  great 
pains  should  be  taken  to  honor  school  life,  and  make  its 
duties  and  requirements  seem  attractive  and  desirable. 
The  school  too  often  discounts  itself. 


Should  Artificial  Incentives  ever  be  used? 

The  consideration  of  one  more  question  seems  neces- 
sary to  complete  this  discussion.  Is  it  ever  right  to 
use  artificial  incentives  in  school  ? 

It  must  be  obvious,  in  view  of  what  has  been  said, 
that  artificial  incentives  should  never  be  used  when 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES.  145 

other  and  higher  incentives  can  be  made  effective.     Of 

two  incentives,  equally  effective  in  securing 

a  desired  end,  the  higher  should  always  be 

chosen.     This  principle   seems  too   evident  to  require 

elucidation. 

It  is  also  evident  that  artificial  incentives,  if  used  at 
all,  should  be  employed  only  as  temporary  expedients  to 
attain  special  results,  and  never  as  a  system.  There  are 
many  expedients  which  may  be  properly  used  Temporary 
under  peculiar  conditions,  but  which  cannot  Expedients, 
be  used  permanently  without  serious  loss.  They  may 
serve  a  useful  purpose  provided  their  use  is  occasional 
and  temporary ;  but  the  mischief  begins  as  soon  as  they 
are  "  reduced  to  a  system,"  and  made,  as  Frederick  Har- 
rison says  of  examinations,  "  the  be-all  and  end-all "  of 
the  school. 

This  principle  may  be  made  plain  by  two  practical 
illustrations  taken  from  real  life.  In  his  early  expe- 
rience as  a  teacher,  the  writer  had  charge  of  a  class  of 
Ojibway  Indians,  fresh  from  the  then  wilds 

Illustration. 

of  northern  Michigan.1  They  were  easily  in- 
terested in  writing,  drawing,  and  other  manual  exer- 
cises, but,  as  a  class,  had  little  interest  in  anything 
requiring  thought.  Being  a  stranger,  he  thought  it 
best  to  try  to  allure  them  to  study  by  presents.  They 
were  very  fond  of  bright  colors,  and  so  he  gave  them 
paints  and  brushes  as  rewards  for  effort.  They  soon 
became  fairly  interested  in  their  studies  ;  and,  when  he 

1  This  occurred  when  the  writer  was  a  student  in  Twinsburg  Academy, 
Ohio,  preparing  for  college.  The  principal,  Rev.  Samuel  Bissell  (at  this 
writing  over  ninety  years  of  age),  became  deeply  interested  in  the  educa- 
tion of  the  Indians,  and,  for  several  years,  received  into  the  Academy, 
without  charge  for  board  or  tuition,  both  Indian  boys  and  girls.  At  one 
time  more  than  a  score  were  in  the  institution. 

10 


146  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

had  fully  won  their  confidence,  there  was  no  further 
need  of  artificial  incitants.  He  could  make  the  same 
appeals  to  them  as  to  white  youth,  and  with  like 
confidence. 

Here  is  another  example.  A  teacher  once  took 
charge  of  a  boys'  primary  school  that  was  badly  demor- 
alized. At  noon  of  the  first  day  she  came  to  the  prin- 

Another      cipal,  saying  that  she  was  failing  to  control 

Example,  the  school,  and  asking,  evidently  with  much 
solicitude,  if  she  would  be  justified  in  using  a  whip. 
The  principal,  knowing  the  condition  of  the  school  and 
the  strong  personal  influence  of  the  teacher,  advised 
her  not  to  resort  to  whipping,  but  to  try  an  early  dis- 
missal from  school  each  half  day  as  a  reward  for  good 
conduct,  and  to  report  the  result  to  him.  At  the  close 
of  the  first  half  day  she  reported  that  all  but  six  pupils 
were  excused  at  recess ;  the  second  half  day,  that  all 
but  three  were  excused ;  and  the  third  half  day,  that  all 
but  one  pupil  were  excused  a  half  hour  before  the  clos- 
ing of  the  school;  and,  believing  that  the  device  was 
not  longer  needed,  the  principal  recommended  its  dis- 
use. The  teacher  had  won  the  confidence  of  her  pupils, 
and  experienced  no  further  difficulty  in  their  control.  ' 

These  two  illustrations  are  sufficient  to  indicate  the 
conditions  that  may  justify  the  temporary  use  of  arti- 
ficial incentives  in  school  discipline.  It  must,  however, 

what  is  be  added,  that  good  judgment  is  required  in 
shown,  determining  whether  even  the  temporary  use 
of  such  incentives  is  necessary  or  expedient.  It  is  a 
serious  mistake  to  bring,  say,  forty  pupils  down  to  the 
level  of  low  motives  in  order  to  reach  four  or  five  pupils 
who  may  not  be  responsive  to  higher  incentives.  It  is  ~ 
far  better  to  subject  the  exceptional  pupils  to  a  treat- 

N 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES.  147 

ment  specially  suited  to  their  moral  condition.  The 
discipline  of  a  school  should  be  kept  on  the  highest 
possible  plane. 

It  is  sometimes  urged,  in  defense  of  artificial  incen- 
tives, that  their  use  stimulates  pupils  to  put  forth  efforts 
which  result  in  knowledge  and  culture,  —  ends  higher 
and  worthier  than  the  incentives  by  which  Claimfor 
they  are  secured ;  ends  that  justify,  as  is  Artificial 
claimed,  the  means  employed  to  attain  them.  Incentlves- 
Much  is  made  of  the  scholarly  zeal  and  attainments  of 
those  who  are  active  contestants  for  prizes  and  honors. 
But  these  facts,  if  conceded,  do  not  touch  the  vital 
question  involved,  —  the  moral  results  of  these  incen- 
tives ;  their  results  in  character,  which  is  higher  and 
more  important  than  scholarship  or  learning.1  Besides, 
as  shown  above,  these  artificial  incentives  reach,  at 
best,  but  a  few  students,  and  these  do  not  need  them. 
Instruction  that  kindles  in  the  pupil  a  love  of  knowledge, 
needs  no  artificial  support.  Good  teaching  needs  no 
such  propping. 

Many  teachers  are  using  artificial  incentives  who  are 
capable  of  better  things.     They  thoughtlessly  pursue 
the  long  "beaten  path,"  wholly  unconscious    TheTeach. 
of  their  real  power  and  opportunity,  —  a  fact    er's  Eman- 
happily  attested  by  the  experience  of  many     ciPation- 
who  have  been   induced  to   discard   artificial   motives. 
Many   a   teacher    who    has    tried    the    use    of    higher 

1  "  No  doubt  a  college  boy  may  learn  more  Greek  and  Latin  if  it  be  gen-  j 
erally  understood  that  college  honors  are  to  be  mainly  awarded  for  pro- 
ficiency in  these  languages;  but  what  care  we  though  a  man  can  speak 
seven  languages  or  dreams  in  Hebrew  or  Sanskrit,  because  of  their  famil- 
iarity, if  he  has  never  learned  the  language  of  sympathy  for  human  suffer- 
ing, and  is  deaf  when  the  voices  of  truth  and  duty  utter  their  holy 
mandates  ?  "  —  HORACE  MANN. 


148  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

motives  has  been  surprised  at  his  easy  success.  What 
teachers  as  a  class  greatly  need  is  emancipation  from 
slavery  to  traditional  methods  and  devices  in  school  work. 

NATURAL  INCENTIVES. 

Natural  incentives,  as  already  defined,  are  those  im- 
pulses or  desires  whose  ends  are  the  natural  results  or  con- 
sequences of  effort.  They  are  not  confined  to  childhood 
or  to  school,  but  are  the  springs  of  action  through  life. 
Every  end  foreseen,  whether  a  good  to  be  gained  or  an 
evil  to  be  shunned,  awakens  an  impulse  to  effort ;  and 
the  impulses  thus  awakened  occasion  voluntary  action. 

It  is  not  meant  that  the  immediate  result  of  effort  is 

always  its  true  end.     It  may  be  only  a  means  to  such 

end.     A    man    may,   for  example,   work  for 

True  Ends. 

wages,  and  yet  the  money  earned  may  be 
only  a  means  to  the  real  end  for  which  he  labors,— 
the  support  of  himself  or  family,  or  some  other  desired, 
good.  Indeed,  many  of  the  highest  ends  of  human 
life  are  not  the  immediate,  conscious  ends  of  effort. 
Happiness,  for  example,  cannot  be  attained  directly.  It 
springs  up  in  the  path  of  duty,  and  most  frequently,  per- 
haps, when  not  consciously  sought.  The  same  is  true 
of  such  coveted  results  as  influence,  reputation,  honor, 
etc.  They  are  the  consequences,  or  better,  the  atten- 
dants of  those  results  which  are  the  immediate  ends 
of  effort. 

It  is  true  that  happiness,  influence,  reputation,  honor, 
etc.,  may  be  made  the  all-absorbing  ends  of  human 

activity;  but,  when  thus  consciously  sought, 

Substitutes. 

they  become  substitutes  for  the  natural  re- 
sults or  consequences  of  effort,  and  usually  end  in  dis- 
appointment. 


L     LU 

dch' 
ave 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES.  149 

The  fact  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  determining  the  char- 
acter of  a  motive  is  a  simple  one.     Every  voluntary 
action  has  an  immediate  result  or  end,  and,       Right 
when  this  end    is   perceived,  there  is  awak-     Motives, 
ened  in   the   soul    an   impulse   or   desire   to   attain    it. 
When  the  perceived  end  is  right,  the  awakened  motive 
is  right.     Life  is  full  of  these  natural  incentives  to  right 
action ;  and  the  training  of  the  will  in  youth  to  act  in 
conformity  to  them  is  of  the  highest  practical  importance. 

It  follows  that  the  incentives  which  are  appealed  to 
in  school  should  be  the  same  in  kind  as  those  whicl 
are  to  issue  in  future  conduct ;  and  these,  as  we  have 
seen,  are  natural  incentives.     The  more  habitually  theT~ 
child  responds  to  these  incentives  in  school,  the  easier  < 
will  be  his  obedience  to  them  in  life. 

School  life  is  full  of  opportunities  for  such  discipline. 
All  its  requirements  have,  or  should  have,  a  beneficent 
end,  whose  attainment  yields  a  satisfying  re-  OpPortuni- 
ward.     What    is    needed  is    to    make   these      ties  in 
natural  results  of  effort  attractive  and  win-  Sch°o1  Life' 
ning,  and  this  is  never  done  by  thrusting  some  other 
reward  in  their  place.     It  is  only  by  repeated  action 
that  habits    are   formed,  and  this  is  specially  true  ot 
moral  habits.     The  will  can  only  be  free  from  bondage 
to  the  low  and  selfish  by  repeated  response  to  the  high 
and  beneficent.     As  the  French  programme    puts    it, 
"The  school  must  be  made  an  apprenticeship  in  right 
living ; "  and  this  means  living  under  right  motives. 

It  may  be  urged  that  the  desires  for  reputation,  honor, 
superiority,    etc.,  are   natural    desires,  and  hence  they 
may  properly  be  made  incentives  in  school ;    imp0rtant 
but  the  term  "natural"  is  here  used  in    a   Distinction, 
sense  different   from   that  in  which  we  are  using  the 


I$0  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

term.  All  spontaneous  desires  are  natural  to  man,  i.e., 
in  harmony  with  his  nature;  but  a  desire  which  is 
natural  in  this  sense  may  be  used  as  an  artificial  incen- 
tive—  i.e.,  its  object  may  be  held  before  the  mind  as  the 
reward  of  an  act  to  which  it  sustains  no  natural  rela- 
tion. There  is,  for  example,  no  natural  relation  be- 
tween study  and  a  prize,  as  a  medal ;  but  there  is  sueh 
a  relation  between  study  and  knowledge  or  scholarship. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  consider  intelligently  some 
of  the  more  important  natural  incentives  that  may  be 
wisely  used  in  school  training.  The  practical  difficulty 
is  in  making  a  proper  selection.  The  natural  incentives 
that  enter  into  school  life  are  not  only  numerous,  but 
they  range  from  those  which  are  selfish  to  those  high 
motives  which  stir  the  soul  with  the  highest  and  purest 
joys  of  life. 

They  include  such  incentives  as  the  following:  — 

1.  A  desire  for  (i)  success,  (2)  good  standing,  (3)  ex, 
cellence,  etc. 

2.  A  desire  for  (i)  approbation,  incl ading  that  of  equals, 
superiors,  one's  self,  and  God ;  (2)  esteem  ;  (3)  honor,  etc. 

3.  A  desire  for  knowledge,  including  that  which  is 
useful  (i)  in  acquiring  other  knowledge,  (2)  for  guid- 
ance, (3)  for  enjoyment,  etc. 

4.  A   desire  for  (i)  activity;    (2)    power,  —  mental, 
moral,  and  physical;  (3)  skill;  (4)  efficiency;  (5)  free- 
dom from  imperfection,  etc. 

5.  A  desire  for  (i)  self-conduct,  including  self-con- 
trol  (negative)    and   self-direction    (positive) ;    (2)   self- 
approval  ;  (3)  self-respect,  etc. 

6.  A  desire  for  future  good,  including  (i)  usefulness  ; 
(2)   influence;  (3)  well-being;  (4)  freedom  from  want, 
discomfort,  dependence  on  others^  etc. 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  \$\ 

7.  A  sense  of  (i)  honor,  (2)  right,  (3)  duty,  (4) 
demerit,  (  5  )  shame,  etc. 

It  may  assist    in   the    study  of   these    incentives   if 
it  be  seen  that  they  fall  naturally  into  the      Groups, 
groups  indicated,  those  in    each    group  being  related. 

The  first  group  includes  the  desires  for  success, 
good  standing,  and  excellence ;  good  standing  being  at 
once  the  result  and  measure  of  success,  and  excellence 
being  a  high  degree  of  success. 

The  second  group  includes  the  desires  for  approba- 
tion, esteem,  honor,  etc. ;  esteem  being  such  a  degree 
of  approval  as  estimates  value,  and  honor  being  high 
esteem  based  on  supposed  merit.  In  this  group  might 
also  be  included  the  desire  for  reputation,  renown, 
etc.  ;  but  these  terms  involve  an  extent  of  esteem  not 
quite  consistent  with  the  limitations  of  school  life, 
and,  in  addition,  they  might  easily  become  unworthy 
motives. 

The  third  group  includes  the  desire  for  knowledge, 
freedom  from  ignorance,  etc. 

The  fourth  group  includes  the  desires  for  activity, 
power,  skill,  efficiency,  etc.  The  normal  activity  of 
one's  powers  not  only  affords  a  resulting  satisfaction, 
but  such  activity  is  an  essential  condition  of  growth 
and  efficiency. 

The  fifth  group  includes  the  desires  for  self-conduct, 
including  self-control  and  self-direction,  or  self-mas- 
tery. Closely  related  are  the  desires  for  perfection, 
freedom  from  defects,  weakness,  etc.,  and,  as  results, 
self-approval,  self-respect,  self-esteem,  etc.  These  de- 
sires are  not  to  be  confounded  with  egotism,  vanity, 
self-conceit,  etc.,  which  overestimate  one's  merits,  and 
are  blind  to  defects. 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

The  sixth  group  includes  those  desires  which  look  to 
the  practical  uses  and  results  of  one's  attainments  in 
after  life,  —  those  relating  to  one's  self,  involving  self- 
interest  ;  and  those  relating  to  others,  being  altruistic 
and  benevolent.  They  include  such  desires  as  future 
good,  well-being,  influence,  usefulness,  freedom  from 
want  or  discomfort,  dependence  on  others,  etc. 

The  seventh  and  last  group  includes  those  incentives 
which  are  called  senses.  The  term  "  sense  "  is  used  to 
denote  an  intuitive  perception  of  an  object,  united  with 
an  attendant  desire  to  realize  it.  It  is  a  stronger  incen- 
tive than  a  simple  desire,  since  it  adds  to  the  impulsive 
feeling  the  approval  or  disapproval  of  the  moral  judg- 
ment. The  first  three  senses  named  in  the  group  are 
positive,  and  the  last  two  are  restraining  or  negative. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  there  are  at  least  six  somewhat 
distinct  classes  of  desires,  and  several  so-called  senses, 
included  in  the  natural  incentives  that  enter  into  school 
life.  It  is  not  meant  that  they  are  equally  prominent 

varying     in  all  grades  of  school,  or  that  they  possess 

influence,  equal  influence  at  all  times  and  under  all  con- 
ditions. The  motives  which  are  strongest  and  most 
effective  with  primary  pupils  may  have  comparatively 
little  influence  with  more  advanced  pupils ;  and  in  the 
same  school,  and  with  pupils  of  equal  age,  there  may  be 
a  marked  difference  in  the  effectiveness  of  the  same 
motives,  —  a  difference  due  not  only  to  a  difference  in 
inherent  moral  susceptibilities,  but  perhaps  more  largely 
to  a  difference  in  home  training. 

But  while  there  may  be  these  differences  in  the  influ- 
ence of  motives,  it  is  also  true  that  human  nature  is 
endowed  with  common  moral  susceptibilities,  and  all 
pupils  are  more  or  less  influenced  by  the  same  natural 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES. 


153 


motives.  It  has  been  unwisely  urged  that  the  teacher 
should  ascertain  the  ruling  motives  of  each  pupil,  and 
then  appeal  to  these  in  his  discipline.  This  ignores  the 
fact  that  the  true  aim  of  school  discipline  is  to  common 
train  the  pupil  in  ready  and  habitual  response  Motives, 
to  high  and  worthy  motives,  thus  freeing  him  from 
bondage  to  the  low  and  selfish,  which  may  have  rule 
over  him.  The  true  measure  of  success  here  is  not  the 
ease  with  which  study  and  right  conduct  are  secured,  but 
the  character  of  the  motives  by  which  they  are  secured. 
This  leads  us  to  the  consideration  of  the  comparative 
worth  of  different  motives.  All  right  motives,  even, 
are  not  equally  high,  or  of  equal  value  in  train-  comparative 
ing  character.  A  gradation  of  motives,  suffi-  worth, 
ciently  accurate  for  all  practical  purposes,  may  be  made 
by  selecting  from  each  group  given  above  the  incentive 
most  active  and  controlling  in  school  life,  and  then 
arranging  the  incentives  thus  chosen  in  an  ascending 
scale,  as  below. 


9.     SENSE  OF  DUTY. 


8.     SENSE  OF  RIGHT. 


7.     SENSE  OF  HONOR. 


6.     DESIRE  FOR  FUTURE  GOOD. 


5.     DESIRE  FOR  SELF-CONTROL. 


4.     DESIRE  FOR  EFFICIENCY. 


3.     DESIRE  FOR  KNOWLEDGE. 


2.     DESIRE  FOR  APPROBATION. 


i.     DESIRE  FOR  GOOD  STANDING. 


154  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

There  may  be  some  doubt  respecting  the  propriety  of 
putting  the  desire  for  future  good  higher  than  the  three 
desires  which  are  below  it  (3,  4,  and  5)  ;  but  this  incen- 
tive is  herein  used  as  the  representative  (in  part)  of  the 
altruistic  desires,  and  these  are  not  only  later  in  their 
development,  but  they  always  denote  high  moral  ad- 
vancement. Besides,  it  is  not  our  aim  to  present  an 
ideal  gradation  of  incentives,  but  rather  to  present  such 
a  comparison  as  will  enable  teachers  to  observe  intel- 
ligently this  important  maxim  in  will  training ;  to 
wit,  "  Of  two  motives  equally  effective,  always  use  the 
higher." 

Let  us  now  consider  the  practical  value  and  proper 
use  in  school  training  of  each  of  these  representative 
incentives. 

i.  GOOD  STANDING. 

The  desire  for  good  standing  is  evidently  the  lowest 
of  the  natural  incentives  in  the  scale,  and  it  may  easily 
be  made  an  artificial  incentive.  This  is  always  true 
when  the  sign  of  standing  is  put  before  the  pupils  as 
the  real  end  of  effort.1  In  too  many  schools,  the  desire 
for  high  class  marks  or  high  per  cents  in  examinations  is 
the  ruling  passion  of  the  more  ambitious  pupils,  and  the 
spirit  of  the  entire  school  is  dominated  by  it.  If  100^ 
were  a  chosen  idol,  and  teachers  and  pupils  were  devout, 
idolaters,  the  worship  of  this  percentage  god  would  not 
be  more  zealous,  or,  we  may  add,  more  harmful,  than 
it  is  in  many  schools. 

1  It  is  difficult  to  prevent  the  sign  of  success  from  assuming  the  place 
of  success.  This  is  specially  true  when  the  fact  of  success  is  determined 
by  another,  as  in  school. 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES.  155 

But  the  incentive  now  under  consideration  is  a  desire 
for  real  standing,  not  for  its  sign.  This  desire  has  its 
source  in  the  desire  for  success,  —  one  of  the 

r~  0  .  Source. 

strongest   incentives   to   effort.     Success  in 
what  one  undertakes  affords  a  high  satisfaction,  and  the 
hope  of  attaining  it  stimulates  and  sustains  effort.     The 
fear  of  failure  often  takes  out  of  effort  the  energy  and 
push  which  alone  make  success  possible. 

Moreover,    the    desire    for    good    standing    involves 
neither  competition  nor  emulation.     It  is  simply  a  de-  _ 
sire  for  success  as  measured  by  an  approved  standard; 
and  the  higher  the  standard,  the  greater  the  satisfaction 
experienced  in  its  attainment.     It  is  for  this    Approved 
reason  that  the  reaching  of  a  standard  of  sue-    standard, 
cess  fixed  by  the  school  authorities  or  the  teacher  affords 
pupils  so  lively  a  satisfaction.      But,  to  this  end,  the 
assigned   standard  must  be  clearly  understood  by  the 
pupils,  and  the  evidence  of  success  under  it  must  be,  to 
some  extent,  within  themselves.    The  more  intelligently 
pupils  can  judge  of  their  success,  the  stronger  will  be 
the  incentive  to  effort. 

This  suggests  that  the  standard  by  which  the  success 
of  pupils  is  measured  should  be  as  simple  and  as  intelli- 
gible as  possible.  This  principle  condemns  the  use  of 
what  is  known  as  the  "percentage  system,"  Percentage 
especially  in  primary  schools.  How  few  system, 
young  pupils  comprehend  the  difference  between  a 
standing  expressed  by,  say,  79,  and  one  expressed  by 
87  !  In  a  general  way,  they  may  know  that  the  first  is 
lower  than  the  second ;  but  a  child  must  have  had  a  good 
degree  of  arithmetical  training  to  make  an  intelligent 
comparison  of  these  two  standings.  The  use  of  (to 
them)  cabalistic  percentages  to  represent  the  standing 


156  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

of  primary  pupils  is  one  of  the  pedantries  which  so 
belittle  teaching. 

What  intelligent  father  or  mother  would  think  of 
marking  the  work  or  the  conduct  of  a  child  on  a  per- 
centage scale  ?  The  child's  desire  for  success  is  satis- 
fied with  the  words,  "  Well  done,"  or,  what  is  better,  a 
smile  or  a  look  of  approval.  We  can  think  of  no  "  sys- 
tem "  that  would  make  family  training  a  greater  burden 
or  farce  than  the  marking  of  children  from  day  to  day 
on  a  scale  of  I  to  100  !  The  introduction  of  such  non- 
sense into  a  kindergarten  would  be  clear  evidence  that 
the  teacher  was  in  a  wrong  position.  And  yet,  in  how 
many  primary  schools  is  the  time  of  teachers  worse  than 
wasted  in  the  daily  marking  of  the  written  work  of 
pupils  on  this  percentage  scale ! 

If  it  be  desired  to  denote  the  standing  of  pupils  by 
numbers,  how  much  preferable  is  the  scale  of  i  to  10, 

simpler  or,  still  better,  i  to  5.  A  second-reader  pupil 
scale.  may  possibly  have  some  idea  of  standing  thus 
expressed,  and  especially  if  the  numbers  used  are  each 
associated  with  a  well-known  result ;  as,  for  example,  if 
i  and  2  denote  poor  work  (i  very  poor),  3  fair,  4  good, 
and  5  excellent. 

But  we  have  come  to  prefer  the  use  of  words  to  des- 
ignate the  standing  of  pupils  in  elementary  schools. 
When  poor  work  is  called  poor,  good  work  good,  and 
word  excellent  work  excellent,  the  sign  has  a  close 

symbols.  and  natural  relation  to  the  thing ;  and,  be- 
sides, there  is  less  danger  that  the  sign  may  usurp  the 
place  of  the  thing,  and  thus  become  the  immediate 
object  of  desire.  It  may  be  urged  in  objection,  that 
words  are  not  as  convenient  in  making  a  record  of  the 
-standing  of  pupils  as  figures ;  but  if  the  initial  letters 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES.  157 

of  the  words  are  used,  as  P  for  poor,  G  for  good,  and  E 
for  excellent,  the  difference  is  not  serious.  Besides,  it 
would  be,  to  say  the  least,  no  loss  to  the  schools  if  the 
use  of  words  to  denote  pupils'  standing  should  result  in 
less  recording,  less  averaging,  and  less  of  the  related 
mechanism  which  is  now  so  great  a  burden  to  thousands 
of  teachers  capable  of  better  work.  We  more  and  more 
question  the  advantage  of  keeping  any  record  of  pupils' 
standing  below  the  fourth  school  year ;  and  the  record 
in  the  higher  grades,  if  any  be  kept,  should  never  be 
used  to  advertise  the  standing  of  pupils,  or  to  arouse 
emulation  and  rivalry  among  teachers  or  pupils. 

The  pupil's    desire  for  good  standing  is  sufficiently 
met  by  a  knowledge  of  his  success  as  he  advances  in  the 
course ;  and,  to  this  end,  no  daily  marking  is      Daily 
necessary,  and  much  less  the  laborious  re-    Marking, 
cording  of  such  marks.1     It  is  the  fact  of  success,  and 
not  its  record,  that  affords  the  stimulating  satisfaction. 

1  It  was  formerly  the  practice  in  the  Central  High  School  of  Cleve- 
land, O.  (as  early  as  1854),  to  require  pupils  at  the  close  of  each  recita- 
tion to  give  their  own  estimate  of  their  success  in  preparing  the  lesson  and 
in  reciting  it;  and  whenever  a  pupil's  estimate  was,  in  the  teacher's  judg- 
ment, too  high  or  too  low,  the  teacher  gave  his  estimate,  which  was  ac- 
cepted as  final.  These  estimates  were  recorded  by  the  teacher,  and  also 
by  the  pupils,  in  a  little  book  provided  for  the  purpose;  and  thus  each 
pupil  had  in  his  possession  a  record  of  his  standing  from  day  to  day.  The 
estimates  were  made  on  a  scale  of  I  to  5.  The  plan  worked  well  for  years, 
under  successive  principals.  The  fact  that  the  pupils'  estimates  were  sub- 
ject to  the  immediate  approval  of  the  teacher  made  them  careful  and  con- 
scientious (most  errors  being  too  low  estimates);  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  pupils'  estimates  were  a  great  aid  to  the  teacher.  He  was  less  likely 
to  do  injustice  than  when  he  relied  wholly  upon  his  own  knowledge  or 
memory,  and  his  estimate  was  not  known  to  the  pupils.  The  plan  proved 
a  strong  and  steady  incentive  to  industry.  We  have,  however,  since  learned 
that  good  teaching  does  not  need  even  this  aid  to  secure  conscientious 
work. 


158  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

It  is  poor  teaching  that  hides  its  results  until  they  are 
disclosed  by  a  lead  pencil.  Besides,  the  attempt  to 
keep  a  daily  record  of  the  success  of  pupils  as  an  incen- 
tive to  study  has  resulted  in  a  sad  waste  of  time  in 
schools,  and  a  great  loss  of  teaching  power  and  effi- 
ciency. What  the  schools  imperatively  need  is  more  vital 
teaching  and  less  marking  and  book-keeping. 

Two  dangers  beset  the  use  of  good  standing  as  an 

incentive  in  school,  —  the  one  (already  considered),  the 

TWO       giving  °f   undue  emphasis  to  the  sign,  the 

Dangers,  record ;  and  the  other,  the  magnifying  of 
success  at  the  expense  of  fidelity.  It  need  not  here  be 
said  that  great  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  first 
of  these  errors,  but  it  may  not  be  so  generally  seen  that 
equal  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  second.  The 
two  elements  of  good  standing  that  deserve  special 
recognition  are  fidelity  and  success,  and  the  greater  of 
these  is  fidelity ;  but  of  this  no  record  is  usually  kept. 
It  is  success  that  figures  in  the  per-cent  record,  and  it 
is  too  often  only  success  that  enters  into  the  teacher's 
estimates.  The  ordinary  examination  is  a  test  of  suc- 
cess, usually  of  a  mechanical  sort.  It  can  take  little 
note  of  fidelity.  These  facts  make  it  all  the  more  im- 
portant that  the  teacher  be  quick  to  recognize  and 
honor  faithful  effort.  This  prepares  the  way  for  the 
next  higher  incentive. 

2.   APPROBATION. 

The  desire  for  approbation  appears  early  in  child- 
hood, and  continues  through  life.  It  acts  both  as  a 
restraint  and  as  an  impulse,  and  it  is  at  all  times  an 
active  principle  in  human  conduct.  No  true  man  is 
insensible  to  the  good  opinion  of  others.  It  has  been 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES.  159 

wisely  said,  "A  young  man  is  not  far  from  ruin  when 
he  can  say  without  blushing,  '  I  don't^eare  what  others 
think  of  me.' "  He  has  lost  a  needed  check  to  evil  and 
a  beneficent  impulse  to  right  action. 

And  yet  the  value  of  approbation  clearly  depends  on 
its  source,  —  on  the  character  of  those  who  approve. 
The  praise  of  the  wicked  is  a  snare,  and 

Source. 

even  the  approbation  of  the  wise  and  good 
can  never  be  placed  above  the  approval  of  one's  own 
conscience.  A  young  man  is  certainly  near  ruin  when 
he  has  deliberately  put  the  approval  of  men  before1 
honor  and  duty.  He  has  made  a  sad  surrender  to  evil, 
provided  only  it  meets  with  the  applause  of  his  clique 
or  his  party.  But  the  motive,  which  we  are  commend- 
ing, is  not  a  craving  for  unmerited  praise  or  flattery, 
but  a  desire  to  merit  approbation ;  and  this  involves  no 
surrender  of  conscience  or  honor.  It  is  a  worthy  mo- 
tive, though  easily  perverted  by  self-pride  or  vanity. 

The  degree  of  satisfaction  resulting  from  approbation 
depends  on  one's  esteem  for  those  who  bestow  it.     The 
satisfaction  afforded  by  the  approval  of  one's    Degrees  of 
equals,    as    classmates,    is    lower    than   that  satisfaction, 
afforded  by  the  approval  of  one's  superiors,  as  parents 
or  teachers ;  while  the  highest  satisfaction  which  one 
can  desire  or  seek  is  the  approval  of  God. 

"  I  count  this  thing  to  be  grandly  true, 
That  a  noble  deed  is  a  step  toward  God." 

What  has  been  said  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the 
teacher  needs  to  exercise  great  care  in  the  use  of  ap- 
probation as  an  incentive.     The  one  thing  to 
be  always  avoided  is  false  praise,  or  flattery. 
No  weakness  in  child  nature  is  more  easily  aroused,  or 


160  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

with  more  difficulty  suppressed,  than  vanity.  A  desire 
for  praise,  and  especially  public  praise,  grows  on  its 
own  gratification ;  and  the  more  it  has,  the  more  it 
wants.  It  is  a  good  rule  to  speak  ten  words  of  com- 
mendation in  an  elementary  school  to  one  of  censure ; 
but  the  commendation  should  be  sincere  and  honest, 
and  the  censure  kind  and  just. 

It  is  not  meant  that  a  teacher  should  never  commend 
an  imperfect  effort  or  result.     It  is  the  faithful  endeavor, 

Fidelity  not  the  perfect  result  Only,  that  Should  re- 
commended, ceive  recognition  and  approval ;  otherwise 
the  dull  and  unskillful  would  receive  no  encourage- 
ment. Fidelity  can  be  commended  without  falsehood 
or  flattery,  provided  keen-eyed  love  and  sympathy  are 
on  the  lookout  for  it. 

The  attempt  to  incite  pupils  to  study  or  to  good  con- 
duct by  unmerited  flattery  is  a  serious  wrong,  as  well  as 
a  great  folly.     "  Praise  is  cheap,"  says  the  old 

Flattery.  ,         i  r   i  •  n 

proverb ;  but  false  praise  is  dear,  as  well  as 
foolish.  Besides,  a  teacher  who  is  untruthful  in  praise 
needs  a  good  memory.  The  superintendent  who  de- 
clared with  gusto  that  the  reading  in  each  of  the  several 
rooms  visited  one  week,  was  "  the  very  best  in  the  city," 
had  a  weak  conscience  or  a  short  memory,  or  both ;  but 
when  the  teachers,  on  Saturday,  accidentally  "  compared 
notes,"  his  fulsome  flatteries  were  at  a  heavy  discount. 
In  no  duty  does  a  teacher  need  a  conscience  more  than 
in  the  praise  of  pupils  —  unless,  possibly,  it  be  in  their 
censure. 

3.    KNOWLEDGE. 

The  mind  is  endowed  with  a  spontaneous  craving  or 
desire  for  knowledge,  and  this  desire  is  specially  keen 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  l6l 

and  active  in  childhood.  This  natural  craving  of  the 
mind  for  knowledge  is  more  than  curiosity,  —  more 
than  a  desire  for  novelty.  It  is  a  principle  of  the 
mind,  which  has  for  its  final  cause  or  purpose  the 
development  of  the  mental  powers  and  the  improve- 
ment of  the  individual  and  the  race.  It  is  nature's 
means  for  securing  these  beneficent  ends. 

The  craving  for  knowledge  is  as  much  an  appetite  of 
the  soul  as  the  craving  for  food  is  an  appetite  of  the 
body,   and    it    has    just    as    definite  (though     Appetite 
higher)  an  ulterior  purpose.     Moreover,  the  ofthesoui. 
satisfying  of  the  desire  and  impulse  to  know  is  a  per- 
petual gratification.     Few  joys  are  keener  than  those 
that  attend  the  clear  grasp  of  knowledge,  especially  the 
discovery  of  new  truth.     "  Eureka  "  expresses  a  joyous 
feeling  as  well  as  a  fact. 

This  natural  craving  of  the  mind  for  knowledge  is 
one  of  the  strongest  incentives  in  education.     It  is  a 
constant  spur  and  impulse  to  mental  activity,    stron  est 
especially  to  observation  and  thought,  and  is         of 
thus  the  most  effective  incentive  to  research   Incentives- 
or  study.     Much  has  been  said  of  the  scholarly  zeal  of 
those  who  seek  knowledge  to  coin  it  into  money,  or  repu- 
tation, or  position ;  but  the  devotion  to  study  which  has 
resulted  in  the  best  scholarship,  has  sprung  from  a  love 
of  truth  for  her  own  sake ;  and  it  may  be  added,  that  it 
is  only  to  those  who  thus   seek  her,  that  she  reveals 
her  highest  beauty  and  charm.     It  may  be  true  that  the 
desire  for  knowledge  is  supported  and  often  intensified 
by  the  other  desires   to  which  it  ministers ;    but  this 
strongest  and  deepest  tendency  and  impulse  of  the  soul 
has  its  source  in  the  fact  that  knowledge  is  the  aliment 
of  the  mind,  —  the  principle  of  its  activity  and  growth. 
ii 


*62  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

The   desire   for   knowledge    is   made  effective  as  a 
school  incentive  by  natural  and  true  methods  of  teaching. 
HOW  made  The  mind  craves  knowledge,  not  verbal  chaff ; 
Effective.    an^  this  craving  is  not  satisfied  by  repeating 
words  that  express  another's  knowledge,  especially  text- 
book knowledge.     Knowledge  is  the  result  or  product 
of  the  act  called  knowing ;  and  this  is  always  the  act  of 
the  learner,  not  of  the  teacher.     The  pupil  knows  by 
the  act  of  his  mind,  if  he  knows  at  all. 

It  follows  that  knowledge  cannot  be  transferred  from 
one  mind  to  another  —  cannot  be  "communicated,"  in 
Knowledge  tne  usual  meaning  of  this  word,  —  an  error 
not  Trans-   that   has   been   the   cause  of  wide  mischief, 
ferabie.     Knowledge  can  be  taught  only  by  occasion-! 
ing    the  appropriate   activities   of    the   learner's    mind.j*" 
This  is  a  bed-rock  principle  in  teaching.     All  that  on$< 
mind  can  do  to  assist  another  in  acquiring  knowledge 
is  to  occasion  those  mental  activities  that  result  in  the 
desired  knowledge.     The  true  teacher  is  not  a  commu- 
nicator of  knowledge,  not  a  crammer  of  the  memory 
with  words,  not  even  a  crank-turner  of  approved  meth- 
ods.    He  is  simply  the  occasioner  of  right  mental  action. 
The  two  essential  steps  in  the  teaching  of  knowledge 
are  (i)  the  awakening  of  a  desire  to  know,  —  the  put- 
Two  steps    tmg  °f  tne  learner's  mind  on  tiptoe,  —  and 
in         (2)  the  presenting  of  the  objects  to  be  known 
instruction.   m  ^^  a  manner  as  to  occasion  the  appro- 
priate activity  of   the  learner's   mind.     Teachers  as  a 
class    fail    in    the  first  step  more  frequently,  perhaps, 
than  in  the  second,  and  they  often  fail  in  the  second 
step  because  of  their  failure  in  the  first.     There  is  no 
successful  teaching  in  the  absence  of  interest  and  con-^ 
sequent  attention,  and  for  the  reason  that  the  neces- 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES.  163 

sary  mental  activity  is  wanting.  At  the  same  time,  it 
is  to  be  kept  in  mind  that  no  arousing  of  curiosity  or 
interest  in  pupils,  no  mental  tiptoeing,  will  avail,  if  the 
second  step  be  not  taken,  —  the  occasioning  of  the  ap- 
propriate acts  of  knowing.  The  mind  must  not  only 
be  on  tiptoe,  but  there  must  be  something  within  reach  ! 
It  is  feared  that  primary  teaching  is  too  often  the 
attempt  to  occasion  a  series  of  agreeable  sensations,  as 
if  feeling  were  knowing.  Curiosity,  and  even  Sensations 
interest,  are  only  conditions  of  knowing.  They  not 
must  issue  in  acts  of  knowing,  —  real  knowl-  Knowled&e- 
edge.  This  alone  can  satisfy  the  desire  to  know,  and 
this  alone  will  sustain  interest  and  zeal  in  learning. 
The  acquisition  of  knowledge  is  its  own  satisfying  re- 
ward; and  so  we  come  back  again  to  the  truth  that 
what  is  needed  as  an  incentive  to  study  is  not  the  award- 
ing of  prizes  and  honors,  but  skillful  teaching.  True 
teaching  does  not  need  artificial  propping. 

4.  ACTIVITY  AND  EFFICIENCY. 

The  desire  for  activity  is  one  of  the  strongest  im- 
pulses of  childhood  and  youth,  and  the  proper  gratifica- 
tion of  this  desire  affords  a  high  satisfaction.  Nature's 
This  is  nature's  mode  of  securing  her  ends.  Means. 
It  is  by  activity  that  all  the  child's  powers,  physical  and 
psychical,  are  developed  and  perfected;  and  so  the  im- 
pulse to  activity  is  nature's  means  to  this  end.  Indeed, 
every  desire  of  the  soul  has  as  its  end  or  correlate  the 
meeting  of  some  human  need  or  want.  The  correlates 
of  activity  include  power,  skill,  —  efficiency ;  and  so  the 
desire  for  activity  is  a  principle  of  the  child's  nature. 
As  a  means  of  securing  needed  efficiency,  activity  is 
made  a  pleasure  and  a  delight. 


164  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

This  is  not  only  true,  but  the  conscious  possession  of 
efficiency,  whether  in  the  form  of  power  or  skill,  is  a 

source  of  source  of  satisfaction.  This  explains  the 
satisfaction,  pleasure  experienced  in  performing  difficult 
feats  and  in  overcoming  difficulties.  Such  achieve- 
ments are  evidences  of  power  and  skill,  so  greatly  de- 
sired. It  is  this  fact  that  gives  such  a  zest  to  athletic 
sports  and  games,  and  also  to  more  purely  intellectual 
feats.  They  are  exhibitions  of  extraordinary  power  or 
dexterity,  and  it  is  this  that  affords  the  special  pleasure. 
This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  such  exhibitions  afford 
keen  satisfaction  when  there  is  no  contest  between  in- 
dividuals. The  tricks  of  the  necromancer,  the  skill  of 
the  rope-dancer,  the  feats  of  the  equestrian  or  the  ath- 
lete, draw  crowds  of  interested  spectators,  even  when 
there  is  no  contest.  It  is  true  that  this  interest  may  be 
increased  by  competition  for  superiority,  as  in  many  of 
our  games  where  the  desire  to  excel  rivals  becomes  the 
ruling  passion  of  the  hour.  But  the  fact  remains,  that 
the  prime  impulse  to  effort  is  born  of  a  desire  for  effi- 
ciency,—  for  the  possession  of  coveted  power  and  skill. 
Quick  has  truly  said  of  the  Cambridge  student  of  forty 
years  ago,  that  he  valued  force  above  its  application ; 
when  he  had  succeeded  in  the  gymnasium  in  "putting 
up"  a  hundredweight,  he  esteemed  the  feat  as  evidence 
of  power.  He  did  not  want  to  put  up  hundredweights, 
but  simply  to  be  able  to  put  them  up. 

These  facts  clearly  show  the  practical  value  and  effi- 
ciency of  this  incentive  in  school  training.  "  Idleness  is 

value  i»  tne  m°ther  of  mischief,"  is  an  old  school  max- 
schooi  im  ;  and  one  of  the  follies  of  the  old-time  school 

Training.  was  tke  attempt  to  heed  it  by  foicing  study 
in  the  absence  of  interest,  and  often  of  ability  to  do 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  165 

what  was  required.  Idleness  is  not  natural  to  a  child. 
Activity  is  both  a  principle  and  a  necessity  of  its  nature, 
and  all  that  is  required  to  secure  such  activity  is  to  pr^o- 
vide  occasions  for  it,  —  to  incite  and  gratify  the  desire 
that  prompts  it.  To  this  end,  a  few  important  facts 
must  be  recognized  and  observed. 

It  is  not  simple  action  that  affords  a  child  pleasure, 
but  skillful  action.     There  is,  for  illustration,  no  special 
pleasure  in  pitching  a  quoit  or  tossing  a  ball,      skillful 
if  neither  the  mind  nor  the  will  is  in  the  act.     Action. 
It  is  the  skillful  aim  and  the  dexterous  pitch  that  afford 
the  pleasure. 

This  is  true  in  all  school  drill,  whatever  its  purpose. 
The  aimless  and  dull  repetition  is  not  only  fruitless,  but 
pleasureless.     There  must  be  the  clear   and   inspiring 
ideal,  the  lively  interest,  the  keen  attention,     Skillin 
and  the  earnest  endeavor.     These  not  only      school 
make  desired  success  possible,  but  they  make     Effort- 
the  exercise  a  pleasure.     It  is  not  only  in  doing  better 
than  he  has  done  before,  but  in  doing  his  best,  that  the 
pupil  finds  his  highest  satisfaction.     His  nature  quickly 
responds  to  the  couplet, — 


Do  your  best,  your  very  best, 
And  do  it  every  day." 


True  training  not  only  increases  power  and  skill  (its 
ends),  but  it  also  affords  a  joyous  activity  which  is  its 
own  satisfying  reward.  It  is  thus  seen  that  it  is  skill- 
ful teaching,  not  the  formal  appeal,  that  makes  the 
desire  for  efficiency  so  effective  an  incentive  in  school 
training. 

Another  fact  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  that  the  child's 
power  of  attention,  and  hence  of  continued  effort,  is 


1 66  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

limited.     Few  pupils  under  ten  years  of  age  can  sustain 
moderate  attention  for  half  an  hour,  or  close  attention 

Limits  of    for  more  than  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes. 

Attention,  it  follows  that  the  programme  of  a  primary 
school  should  provide  for  frequent  changes  in  the 
exercise,  and  those  that  call  into  play  different  powers 
of  mind  and  body  should  succeed  each  other.  Singing 
or  reading  may  follow  writing  or  drawing,  but  drawing 
should  not  follow  writing.  A  change  of  activity  affords 
often  needed  rest.  What  is  needed  is  the  filling  of  the 
school  day  with  a  round  of  interesting  work,  all  well 
done. 

It  seems  proper  to  add  that  the  desire  for  efficiency 

is  not  so  much  to  be  appealed  to  in  school  training  as  to 

be  satisfied.     It  is  conscious  growth  in  power  and  skill 

that  affords  the  desired  incitement  to  effort, 

Satisfaction.  ,       .  .       .  .  ,  .       . 

and  the  desire  for  such  growth  increases 
with  its  gratification.  A  pupil  thus  incited  to  effort 
does  not  need  the  fear  of  a  blow  or  the  temptation  of  a 

prize. 

5.  SELF-CONTROL. 

The  term  "self-control  "  is  here  used  as  the  represent- 
ative of  those  manly  virtues  embraced  in  self-conduct 
or  self-government.  What  the  desire  for  efficiency  is 
self.  in  mental  and  physical  activity,  the  desire 

conduct.  for  self-government  is  in  moral  conduct.  It 
is  at  once  an  inspiration  and  an  impulse.  Its  presence 
and  strength  are  seen  in  man's  quick  resentment  of 
any  criticism  that  implies  moral  weakness.  There  are, 
indeed,  few  virtues  more  coveted  than  self-control,  and 
few  moral  defects  more  humiliating  than  the  lack  of  it ; 
and  nothing  more  effectually  dulls  self-respect  or  saps 
moral  courage. 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  1 67 

Moreover,  conscious  self-mastery  is  the  basis  of  self- 
approval,  which  Dr.  Porter  calls  "the  most  blessed  of 
joys."  It  is  difficult  to  see  how  self -approval  can  follow 
an  act  that  is  forced.  A  man  may  rejoice  in  seif. 
the  fact  that  he  has  been  kept  from  wrong  Approval, 
conduct  even  by  physical  restraint ;  but,  in  such  an 
^experience,  there  is  no  occasion  for  self-gratification, 
much  less  for  self-approval.  Self-approval  is  only  pos- 
sible when  one  is  conscious  that  he  has  been  true  to 
his  own  best  ideals,  and  this  involves  something  more 
than  conformity  to  what  is  imposed  by  outer  authority. 
It  involves  self -obedience  to  the  law  of  duty  written  in 
the  heart  and  the  conscience. 

"  How  happy  is  he  born  or  taught, 
Who  serveth  not  another's  will ; 
Whose  armor  is  his  honest  thought, 
And  simple  truth  his  utmost  skill !  "  1 

It  is  certainly  rare  that  any  human  being  is  thrilled 
with  delight  because  he  has  done  what  he  was  forced  to 
do  or  could  not  help  doing.  The  desire  for  self-conduct 
is  nature's  provision  for  preparing  the  child  for  the 
liberty  of  manhood,  self-government  being  the  neces- 
sary condition  of  personal  liberty.  The  school  affords 
many  opportunities  for  the  training  of  pupils  in  the 
habit  of  self-government,  and  this  discipline  goes  to 
the  very  root  of  effective  moral  training. 

The  power  of  self-government  is  strengthened  only 
by  its  free  exercise,  and,  to  this  end,  the  discipline  of  the 
school  must  call  into  play  self-restraint  and  self-direc- 
tion. This  is  never  done  by  hedging  the  HOW 
pupil's  conduct  with  prohibitions,  bristling  strengthened, 
with  penalties ;  but  the  pupil  must  be  made,  as  fully  as 

1  Sir  Henry  Wotton. 


1 68  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

possible,  a  law  unto  himself,  and  then  be  led  to  a  cheer- 
ful and  happy  conformity  thereto.  This  does  not  mean 
that  the  pupils  in  a  school  are  to  be  permitted  to  act 
each  according  to  his  "  own  sweet  will."  There  are  com- 
mon rights  and  interests  in  a  school  which  call  for  self- 
denial  and  mutual  cooperation  ;  in  other  words,  for  order 
and  system.  But  neither  order  nor  system  in  a  school- 
needs  to  destroy  self-direction  in  the  pupils.  On  the 
contrary,  the  highest  self-conduct  may  be  exhibited  in 
conforming  freely  to  established  order. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  add  that  these  views  do  not 
countenance  disobedience  or  disorder  in  school.  One 
of  the  birthrights  of  the  child  is  the  right  to  control,  — 

outer       even  the  control  of  force  when  this  is  required 

control,  to  prevent  wrongdoing,  —  but  the  best  outer 
control  is  that  which  leads  to  self-control.  The  most 
orderly  schools  that  we  have  seen  have  been  those  in 
which  there  was  the  least  show  of  outer  control  and 
the  freest  play  of  self-activity.  An  ideal  school  runs 
like  a  clock,  —  from  an  inner  impulse  and  motive. 

Some  time  since,  a  gentleman  gave  in  our  presence 
an  account  of  his  visit  to  a  grammar  school,  character- 
ized   by  unusual    self-government   on  the  part  of   the 
pupils.     He  said  that  he  entered  the  main  schoolroom 
without    rapping,   and  found  himself    in  the 

Illustration.  .,          .   . 

presence  of  a  hundred  or  more  pupils  without 
teacher  or  monitor.  He  took  his  seat  on  the  platform 
in  full  view  of  the  pupils  ;  but  only  a  few  seemed  to 
notice  his  presence,  and  these  with  a  respectful  glance. 
It  was  nearly  twenty  minutes  before  the  principal  en- 
tered, and,  during  all  this  time,  he  did  not  observe  a 
single  act  to  which  as  a  teacher  he  could  have  taken 
the  least  exception.  The  pupils  were  industriously 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  169 

engaged  in  preparing  their  lessons,  and  all  their  move- 
ments were  quiet  and  orderly. 

The  principal  entered,  gave  the  visitor  a  hearty  wel- 
come, saying  that  he  had  been  giving  a  half  hour  to  one 
of  the  lower  rooms.  Immediately  there  was  a  general 
putting  aside  of  books  and  slates  ;  and,  without  a  signal 
or  a  word,  a  class  rose  simultaneously,  and  quietly  filed 
into  a  recitation  room ;  and  then  another  class  rose  in 
like  manner,  and  passed  to  the  recitation  seats  in  the 
main  room.  This  left  the  pupils  of  the  third  division 
distributed  throughout  the  large  schoolroom  for  study. 
Without  the  loss  of  a  moment,  the  recitation  began, 
and  soon  all  was  interest  and  attention.  The  principal 
spoke  in  a  conversational  tone,  but  with  great  anima- 
tion ;  and  both  he  and  his  pupils  were  aglow  with  ear- 
nestness. In  twenty-five  minutes  the  lesson  closed, 
and  some  five  minutes  were  devoted  to  the  careful 
assignment  of  the  next  lesson,  which  the  pupils  noted 
with  evident  care ;  and  then,  without  a  signal,  the  class 
rose  together  and  quietly  filed  to  their  seats.  The 
recitation-room  door  opened,  and  the  pupils  therein 
filed  out  and  to  their  seats.  Immediately  two  other 
classes  rose  in  succession  and  passed  to  their  recitation 
seats,  and  not  exceeding  two  minutes  were  used  in  the 
change  of  classes.  This  change  of  classes  was  twice 
repeated  while  he  remained  in  the  school,  and  in  the 
same  prompt  and  quiet  manner.  At  recess  the  pupils 
filed  out  of  the  schoolroom  by  two  doors,  —  one  for  boys 
and  the  other  for  girls,  —  and  passed  down  the  stairs 
and  into  the  playgrounds  without  any  disorder,  and  not 
a  teacher  was  in  the  hall-ways  watching  them ;  and,  at 
the  close  of  recess,  they  returned  to  the  schoolroom  in 
the  same  orderly  manner,  and  the  work  of  the  school 
was  promptly  begun. 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

At  the  close  of  the  school,  he  confessed  to  the  young 
principal  his  surprise  at  what  he  had  witnessed,  and 
especially  the  concert  of  movement  without  apparent 
signals,  and  asked,  "  What  runs  this  school  ? "  The 
principal  replied  with  a  smile,  "  The  pupils  run  it ;  i.e., 
each  pupil  runs  himself,  and  that  runs  the  school."  He 
added,  "  I  aim  to  secure  here  two  results  :  viz.,  self- 
control  on  the  part  of  each  pupil,  and  concert  of  move- 
ment by  all  when  this  is  necessary ;  and  our  plan  is 
very  simple.  You  must  judge  how  well  we  are  suc- 
ceeding." 1 

6.  FUTURE  GOOD. 

This  incentive  represents  a  group  of  desires  that  look 
to  the  practical  benefits  of  school  training  in  after  life. 
It  includes  those  that  relate  to  one's  own  good,  and 
also  those  that  relate  to  the  good  of  others.  The  first 
involve  self-love,  and  the  second  the  love  of  others. 

It  is  universally  agreed  that  those  desires  that  seek 

the  good  of  others,  the  altruistic,  are  worthy  incentives  ; 

but  some  deny,  unwisely  as  we  think,  the  moral  worth 

of  those  desires  that  flow  from  self-love.     A 

Self-Interest. 

clear  distinction  is  to  be  made  between  self- 
ishness and  self-interest.  Selfishness  seeks  one's  own 
good  to  the  neglect  or  even  sacrifice  of  the  good  of  others. 
Self-interest  seeks  one's  own  welfare,  but  neither  ig- 
nores nor  excludes  the  welfare  of  others.  Self-interest 
is  not  only  consistent  with  altruistic  feeling,  but  it  makes 

1  This  principle  of  self-control  characterized  the  government  of  the 
Chillicothe  (O.)  High  School  when  Edward  H.  Allen  was  its  principal,  — 
the  "  Self-Governing  High  School  "  described  by  Secretary  George  S. 
Boutwell  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  Massachu- 
setts for  1860.  The  principle  has  been  successfully  applied  in  hundreds 
of  the  best  schools  in  the  United  States. 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES.  t?t 

the  serving  of  others  possible.  Self-care  is  essential  to 
the  care  of  another.  Besides,  the  highest  moral  law 
only  requires  man  to  love  his  neighbor  as  himself. 

The  efficiency  of    this  incentive  increases  as  pupils 
advance  in  the  course,  and  in  college  it  often  becomes 
the  ruling  motive.     Many  a  college  student    increasing 
has  denied  himself  even  common  comforts  in    Efficiency, 
order  to  prepare  himself  to  attain  desired  success  or  use- 
fulness in  life,  and  many  noble  youths  have  heroically 
endured  hardness  to  prepare  themselves  to  serve  their 
fellow-men. 

On  the  contrary,  how  many  promising  pupils  leave 
school  early  because  they  do  not  see  that  further  school- 
ing will  materially  enhance  their  success,  or  usefulness, 
or  happiness !  Nearly  every  pupil  who  passes  above 
the  elementary  school  is  sooner  or  later  con-  utilityof 
fronted  with  this  question,  "  Of  what  practi-  school 
cal  use  will  this  schooling  be  to  me  in  life  ?  "  Education- 
The  same  question  arises  with  respect  to  nearly  every 
study,  often  taking  this  form,  "  Of  what  practical  use 
will  its  facts  be  in  the  shop  or  in  the  store,  on  the  farm 
or  in  the  factory,  in  managing  a  railway  or  a  bank  ? " 
On  the  answer  to  these  or  like  questions,  not  only  the 
continuance  of  youth  in  school  or  college  often  depends, 
but  also  their  zeal  and  devotion  to  study  while  in  school. 
No  one  thing  is  doing  more  to  turn  young  men  away 
from  college  than  the  impression  that  business  success 
is  not  enhanced  by  college  training.  The  well-known 
examples  of  large,  even  marvelous,  success  with  little 
or  no  schooling,  are  accepted  by  many  as  conclusive 
proof  of  the  uselessness  of  college  or  even  high-school 
training  as  a  preparation  for  business. 

It  is  not  our  present  purpose  to  cite  the  abundant, 


1/2  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

even  cumulative,  evidence  of  the  practical  value  of 
school  and  college  training  (though  confessedly  very 
imperfect)  in  industrial  and  business  life,  but  rather  to 
emphasize  the  importance  of  using  such  evi- 
dence  as  a  means  of  sustaining  the  interest 

interest.  Qf  pUpjis  m  school  training.  It  is  certainly 
wise  for  the  teacher  to  take  some  pains  to  open  the 
windows  of  the  school  toward  practical  life,  —  not  its 
toil  and  business  only,  but  its  higher  duties  and  inter- 
ests ;  to  give  pupils  an  opportunity  to  appreciate  the 
utility  of  mental  and  moral  power,  as  well  as  practical 
knowledge,  in  labor  and  business,  in  social  and  civil 
duties  and,  what  is  specially  important,  in  the  enjoy- 
ments of  every-day  life.  The  more  clearly  pupils  see 
the  practical  outcome  of  school  training,  the  more  effec- 
tive will  be  the  desire  for  future  good  as  an  incentive  to 
study  and  effort. 

Moreover,  it  is  specially  important  that  the  pupils 
now  in  the  schools  realize  the  fact  that  the  competi- 
increasing  tions  of  industrial,  business,  and  professional 
competition.  \{fe  are  becoming  hitenser  as  civilization  ad- 
vances and  population  grows  denser.  The  conditions 
that  made  success  without  education  possible  forty  years 
ago  are  disappearing,  —  a  fact  of  which  the  present 
generation  is  beginning  to  be  conscious,  and  which 
the  next  will  more  fully  realize  in  personal  experience. 
The  progress  of  the  country  in  industrial  enterprise  and 
professional  skill  is  fast  removing  old  conditions  of  suc- 
cess, and  creating  new  ones,  and  no  youth  will  be  wise 
who  fails  to  bring  to  life's  contest  the  best  possible 
preparation. 

We  would  specially  emphasize  the  need  of  an  earnest 
appeal  to  pupils  to  prepare  themselves  to  be  a  bless. 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  173 

ing  to  the  world,  —  to  do  something  to  help  lessen  its 
burdens,  alleviate  its  distresses,  and  right  its  wrongs. 
That  teacher  has  certainly  been  unhappy  in     Altruistic 
his   relation  to  the    young,  who  doubts  the     Appeals, 
possibility  of  awakening  in  them  a  desire  to  help  their 
fellows  and  bless  mankind.     How  quickly  young  hearts 
respond  to  the  poet's  prayer,  - 

"  If  there  be  some  weaker  one, 
Give  me  strength  to  help  him  on ; 
If  a  blinder  soul  there  be, 
Let  me  guide  him  nearer  Thee." 

7.  SENSE  OF  HONOR. 

The  sense  of  honor  is  one  of  the  strongest  motives 
that  influence  the  conduct  of  the  young.  No  appeal 
takes  hold  of  even  a  wayward  boy  more  effectively 
than  an  appeal  to  his  honor.  His  idea  of  honor  may 
be  low  and  imperfect  ;  but,  whatever  it  may  be,  he 
unconsciously  owns  fealty  to  it. 

There  is  no  period  in  a  boy's  life  in  which  his  honor 
is  less  trusted  by  teachers  as  a  class  than,  say,  from 
ten  to  fourteen  years  of  age  ;  and  yet  it  is  in      Honor 
this  uncertain  period  that  a  boy's   sense  of     in  Boys, 
honor  is  one  of  the  most  determinative  factors  in  his 
conduct.     It  is  a  mistake  to  ignore  this  important  fact, 
—  a  mistake  that  often  leads  to  serious  difficulties  in 
school  discipline. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  school  to  develop  and  strengthen 
in  pupils  a  true  and  manly  honor,  and  to  this  end  there 
must  be  confident  appeals  to  it.     If  a  boy  is   Appeals  to 
treated  as  if  he  had  no  honor,  he  is  likely  to      Honor, 
show  very  little  ;  but  if  his  sense  of  honor  is  trusted, 
he  is  stirred  with  the  desire  to  be  worthy  of  it.     School 


174  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

experience  is  full  of  happy  illustrations  of  the  benefi- 
cent results  of  such  treatment.  Many  a  wayward  boy 
has  been  touched  and  won  by  a  teacher's  generous 
trust  in  his  honor. 

Many  years  ago,  the  writer  heard  or  read  this  touch- 
ing incident  in  the  experience  of  a  teacher  who,  in 
striking  his  day,  was  one  of  the  most  successful  of 
Example.  |-ne  Boston  masters.  There  came  into  his 
school  one  morning  a  rough  Irish  lad,  some  fifteen 
years  of  age.  His  rude  conduct  surprised  the  pupils ; 
but  the  master  saw  his  opportunity,  and  quietly  endured 
the  disturbance  until  noon,  when  he  requested  the 
boy  to  remain.  This  was  received  with  manifest  dis- 
pleasure. When  the  other  pupils  had  left  the  room, 
the  master  requested  the  boy  to  come  to  his  desk. 
This  was  silently  but  defiantly  refused ;  but,  on  being 
assured  that  he  would  not  be  punished,  the  boy  sullenly 
came  to  the  master's  desk.  By  a  few  questions,  he 
learned  that  the  boy  had  neither  home  nor  friends  ;  that 
often  he  had  no  place  to  sleep,  and  often  nothing  to  eat 
except  as  he  begged  it.  He  also  confessed  that  he  had 
come  to  the  school  to  make  a  disturbance  and  see  what 
would  be  done  about  it.  The  master  assured  the 
boy  that  he  would  like  to  be  his  friend,  and,  if  he 
would  come  to  school,  he  could  help  him  better  his 
prospects  for  life.  He  then  gave  the  boy  a  half  dollar, 
and  asked  him  if  he  would  be  so  kind  as  to  go  to  a 
certain  place  and  buy  a  luncheon  for  him,  naming  the 
articles.  This  unexpected  expression  of  confidence  in 
his  honor  touched  the  rough  boy,  and  in  a  few  minutes 
he  returned  with  the  desired  articles  and  the  change. 
The  master  had  won  his  pupil.  He  divided  his  lunch- 
eon with  the  hungry  fellow,  who  at  first  declined  to 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  l?$ 

share  it,  but,  on  this  being  suggested,  took  it  to  the 
cloak  room,  where  he  ate  what  was  really  his  only 
meal  for  the  day.  When  the  school  was  called  in  the 
afternoon,  the  Irish  boy  was  in  his  place,  changed  in 
spirit  and  purpose.  He  continued  in  school,  a  home 
was  found  for  him,  and,  when  we  learned  the  incident 
years  later,  he  was  one  of  the  successful  and  honored 
merchants  of  Boston. 

Teachers  often  make  very  serious  mistakes  in  dealing 
with  what  is  properly  characterized  as  a  false  code  of 
honor  among  pupils,  more  especially  in  high  False  code 
schools  and  colleges.  This  mistake  is  most  of  Honor, 
frequently  made  in  dealing  with  the  reluctance  of 
pupils  to  give  information  that  inculpates  others.  This 
feeling  may  be  due  to  the  fear  of  giving  offense  or  to 
false  ideas  of  honor ;  but,  whatever  may  be  its  source, 
the  attempt  to  override  it  by  force  is  usually  unwise. 
We  have  seldom  seen  any  good  follow  such  an  attempt, 
but  we  have  seen  much  harm  result  from  it.  It  is 
usually  better  to  respect  the  pupil's  sense  of  honor, 
though  false,  until  it  can  be  changed  by  leading  him  to 
see  what  is  true  honor.  False  ideas  are  best  extir- 
pated by  causing  true  ideas  to  take  their  place.  Be- 
sides, colleges  are  largely  responsible  for  the  false  code 
of  honor  prevailing  among  their  students. 

There  may,  however,  be  circumstances  in  which  it  is 
wise  to  require  pupils  to  give  'information  that  may 
inculpate  a  fellow-pupil.  It  is  clear,  that  Exceptional 
when  a  crime  has  been  committed,  or  a  Cases, 
grievous  wrong  done  to  another  pupil,  or  the  authority 
of  the  school  subverted,  every  pupil  is  under  obliga- 
tion to  sustain  the  right ;  and,  if  this  require  an  ex- 
posure of  the  wrongdoer,  a  sense  of  true  honor  will 


176  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

justify  such  exposure.  Civil  government  could  stand 
on  no  other  principle.  The  refusal  to  give  testimony 
when  crime  has  been  committed,  makes  the  citizen 
morally  an  accessory  after  the  act,  and  such  refusal 
may  be  justly  punished.  The  same  principle  holds  in 
school  and  college.  There  are  circumstances  in  which 
no  student  is  justified  in  withholding  information  from 
those  in  authority,  much  less  in  refusing  to  give  such 
information.  A  code  of  honor  that  justifies  such  a 
refusal  is  a  false  code.  The  pupil's  supreme  obligation 
is  to  the  right,  to  justice,  to  honor,  not  to  the  wrong- 
doer.1 On  the  other  hand,  the  disposition  of  a  pupil 
to  be  a  tale-bearer  or  an  informer  should  not  be  en- 
couraged or  honored,  and  especially  when  this  disposi- 
tion has  its  source  in  a  wrong  motive. 

Moreover,  there  are-  few  circumstances  when  it  is 
necessary  or  wise  to  request  a  pupil  to  give  information 
incuipative  that  inculpates  another.  It  is  seldom  that 
information,  there  is  a  misdemeanor  in  school  or  college 
that  cannot  be  otherwise  exposed,  and  certainly  the 
cases  are  very  rare  when  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to 
compulsory  information.  This,  at  least,  has  been  the 
writer's  experience  in  grammar  and  high  schools  and 
in  college.  In  only  one  emergency  was  he  obliged  to 
require  a  student  to  give  information  ;  and  in  this  case 
the  compulsion  was  exercised  by  a  civil  magistrate,  and 
he  has  since  had  good  reasons  to  doubt  that  this  was 
necessary. 

There  are  many  other  ways  in  which  the  wrongdoer 

1  For  a  masterly  discussion  of  the  students'  "Code  of  Honor,"  the 
reader  is  referred  to  a  report  by  Horace  Mann  to  a  Convention  of  Ohio 
College  Officers,  held  in  Columbus,  O.,  Dec.  29,  1856,  published  in  the 
Ohio  Journal  of  Education,  Vol.  vi.,  No.  3. 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  1/7 

in  school  and  college  can  be  detected ;  and,  besides,  it  is 
possible  to  create  such  a  moral  sentiment  in  a  school, 
that  it  will  seldom  be  necessary  even  to  resort  Detection  of 
to  the  arts  of  the  detective.  It  is  certainly  offenders, 
not  our  purpose  to  describe  these  arts.  What  would 
be  wise  and  successful  under  one  set  of  circumstances 
might  be  foolish  and  futile  under  different  circum- 
stances. It  must  suffice  to  venture  here  the  suggestion 
that  it  is  much  easier  to  ascertain  who  did  not  commit 
an  offense  than  to  discover  directly  the  offender ;  and 
usually  the  ascertaining  of  the  innocent  discloses  the 
guilty.  This  may  often  be  accomplished  by  giving  inno^ 
cent  pupils  an  honorable  opportunity  to  free  themselves 
from  all  responsibility  for  a  wrong  act. 

This  raises  the  question  whether  it  is  proper  for  a 
teacher  to  question  a  pupil  respecting   his  connection 
with  an  offense.     One  writer  falls  back  on   Questioning 
the    common-law  principle   that  a  man    can     of  PUP»IS. 
never    be  required    to   give  testimony  that  criminates 
himself ;  but  this  principle  in  law  is  limited  to  criminal 
cases,  and  does  not  apply  to  testimony  in  civil  suits  ; 
and  in  criminal  cases  the  defendant  is  required  to  plead 
guilty  or  not  guilty. 

But  the  mistake  here  is  in  assuming  that  a  pupil  in 
school  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  teacher  that 
the  citizen  does  to  the  civil  authority.     This     Teacher 
is  not  true.     The  teacher  is  in  loco  parentis,     "  in  loco 
and  so  the  teacher  shares  the  parent's  right    Parentis-" 
to  question  his  child  respecting  his  conduct.     The  child 
has  no  moral  right  to  shield  himself  by  silence  or  false- 
hood ;  and  the  pupil  has  no  such  right,  and  especially 
when  the  teacher  treats  offenses  confessed  with  leniency 
and  in  a  spirit  of  love  for  the  pupil.     Moreover,  few 

12 


178  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

school  offenses  are  properly  crimes,  and  fewer  involve 
moral  turpitude.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  treat- 
ing offenses  that  are  criminal  or  inherently  immoral. 

This  leads  us  to  a  consideration  of  what  is  known  as 
the  "Self -Reporting  System." 

It  is  the  practice  in  many  schools  to  require  pupils 

to  report   certain  facts   daily,  usually  at  the  close  of 

school,  and  this  involves  confidence  in  their  truthfulness, 

and  especially  in  their  sense  of  honor.     For 

Examples.  .  ... 

example,  pupils  may  be  asked,  at  the  close  of 
an  exercise  in  spelling,  to  report  the  number  of  words 
misspelled,  if  any ;  and,  at  the  beginning  of  an  exercise 
in  arithmetic  or  algebra,  whether  they  have  solved  all 
of  the  assigned  problems  ;  on  which,  if  any,  they  re- 
ceived assistance ;  what  answers  they  have  obtained, 
etc.,  —  information  of  value  to  the  teacher  in  conduct- 
ing the  exercise.  These  are  but  illustrations  of  the 
many  appeals  which  the  school  makes  to  the  truthful- 
ness and  honor  of  pupils  ;  and  these  appeals  are  too 
often  the  occasions  of  falsehood,  this  being  specially 
true  when  such  self-reporting  is  made  a  "  system,"  or 
unskillfully  directed. 

It  is  never  safe  or  wise  to  make  a  practice  of  calling 
on  pupils  for  such  information  in  the  absence  of  an 

sugges-  active  moral  sentiment  in  the  school,  and  then 
tions.  special  pains  should  be  taken  to  keep  the 
temptation  to  report  falsely  at  a  minimum.  This  will 
often  require  both  skill  and  vigilance.  In  the  spelling 
and  arithmetic  exercises,  above  described,  it  is  easy  for 
the  teacher  to  inspect  the  work  of  one  or  two  of  the 
pupils,  that  of  different  pupils  being  inspected  from 
day  to  day.  This  should  not  be  done  in  a  suspicious 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES. 

manner,  and  it  may  be  made  the  occasion  of  com- 
mendation or  helpful  suggestion.  The  moral  condition 
of  a  school  is,  indeed,  low  when  a  teacher  is  obliged 
to  inspect  personally  all  the  written  work  of  pupils  to 
ascertain  whether  assigned  work  has  been  done,  and 
desired  results  attained.  The  remedy  for  such  drudgery 
is  the  awakening  of  a  higher  sense  of  honor  among  the 
pupils. 

It  was  once  the  practice  in  many  Ohio  schools,  par- 
ticularly high  schools,  to  require  pupils  at  the  close  of 
each  day  to  report  their  deportment.      This  Self.Report. 
report  was  usually  limited  to  such  definite     ing  as  to 
items  as  communications,  tardiness,  etc. ;  but    Conduct- 
in  a  few  schools  it  was  based  on  the  pupil's  conformity 
to  all  school  requirements,  including  deportment,  appli- 
cation, etc.,  and  was  made  on  a  numerical  scale.1     This 
"  self -report  ing  system,"  as  it  was  called,  worked  well  in 
a  few  schools,  under  exceptional  teachers,  and  was  not 
only  a  means  of  easy  discipline,  but  also  of  cultivating 
truthfulness  and  honor  in  the  pupils.     But  in  too  many 
schools  it  was  attended  with  serious  abuses,  not  only 
becoming  a  strong  temptation  to  falsehood,  but  making 
it  a  matter  of  form  and  routine.2 

Even  the  best  teachers  found  it  necessary  to  exercise 
the  greatest  care  in  using  the  system.     The  report  of 
communications  was  usually  taken  by  calling    Method  of 
on  the  pupils  who  had  not  communicated  to    Reporting, 
rise ;  and,  when  they  were  seated,  the  pupils  who  had 
communicated  rose  and  reported  the  number  of  cases. 

1  This  was  the  practice  in  the  Chillicothe  High  School,  to  which  ref- 
erence has  been  made  (p.    170,    note),  —  a    famous  school  in  its  day 
(See  Ohio  Journal  of  Education,  1859,  p.  n). 

2  See  Story  of  "  LitMe  Scotch  Granite,"  p.  262. 


ISO  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

Not  infrequently  there  would  be  indications  that  some 
pupil  had  made  a  mistake,  often  not  intentional. 

We  have  long  hesitated  to  recommend  the  use  of  the 
self-reporting  system,  believing,  as  we  do,  that  but  few 

teachers  can  use  it  successfully  and  safely. 

The  one  suggestion  which  we  specially  desire 
to  emphasize  is  the  importance  of  making  truthfulness 
a  high  source  of  honor  to  the  pupil.  A  true  sense  of 
honor  shuns  a  falsehood  as  a  shame. 


8.  SENSE  OF  RIGHT. 

The  child  is  endowed  with  a  sense  of  right  and 
wrong ;  i.e.,  with  power  to  perceive  right  and  wrong, 
and  with  an  impulse  to  do  the  right  and  not  do  the 
wrong.  He  is  not  only  able  to  discern  and  feel  the 
Tightness  or  wrongness  of  his  own  actions,  but  he  learns 
to  judge  of  the  moral  quality  of  the  actions  of  others. 
This  moral  sense  is  not  only  innate,  but  it  is  susceptible 
of  development  by  its  appropriate  exercise. 

There  are  in  school  two  classes  of  moral  actions.  The 
first  class  includes  those  actions  which  are  intrinsically 
right  or  wrong,  —  actions  which  are  right  or  wrong  not 
classes  of  only  in  school,  but  at  all  times  and  in  all 
Moral  Acts,  places.  The  second  class  includes  those 
actions  which  are  not  intrinsically  right  or  wrong,  but 
whose  moral  quality  grows  out  of  their  fitness  or  unfit- 
ness  to  promote  the  ends  of  the  school,  and  advance 
the  interests  of  its  pupils.  These  actions  are  said  to 
be  formally  or  conventionally  right  or  wrong.  An  act 
which  is  not  wrong  per  se,  as  speaking  to  another,  may 
be  formally  wrong. 

What  is  needed  to  make  the  pupil's  sense  of  right 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  l8l 

and  wrong  an  effective  incentive  in  school  is  an  intelli- 
gent and  discriminating  appeal  to  it.  To  this  end,  the 
teacher  should  be  careful  to  observe  the  dis-  Treatment 
tinction  between  these  two  classes  of  moral  of  school 
actions.  It  is,  for  example,  a  mistake  to  Conduct- 
treat  tardiness  or  whispering  as  wrong  in  the  same 
sense  that  a  falsehood  is  wrong.  We  heard  a  principal 
once  say  that  he  made  his  pupils  feel  that  "  a  whisper 
is  a  sin  against  God."  It  may  be  possible  for  a  teacher 
to  believe  this,  but  we  doubt  whether  his  pupils  ever 
feel  it.  It  is  true  that  whispering  may  be  formally  for- 
bidden, and  then  a  whisper  becomes  disobedience, 
which  may  be  a  sin  ;  but  then  the  sin  is  in  the  dis- 
obedience, and  not  in  the  act  of  whispering.  But  what- 
ever may  be  true  of  the  sinfulness  of  whispering,  nothing 
is  ever  gained  by  treating  it  as  a  sin. 

Conduct  that    is    intrinsically    wrong,   as    falsehood, 
theft,  slander,  quarreling,  profanity,  etc.,   need  not  be 
forbidden  by  rule.     The  pupil's  sense  of  the  wrongness 
of  such  offenses  is  more  imperative  than  any    No  Rules 
school  rule  can  be ;   and,  besides,  they  are     needed, 
known  transgressions   of  the  laws   of   God,  and  their 
guilt  is  not  increased  by  human  regulations. 

Moreover,  while  conduct  that  is  only  formally  or  con- 
ventionally wrong,  as  tardiness,  whispering,  inattention, 
idleness,  etc.,  may  be  forbidden,  sometimes  wisely,  the 
object  of  such  legislation  may  be  more  effec-    Not  Law, 
tually  attained  in  other  ways.     What  is  gen-    but  Dri11- 
erally  needed  to  lead  the  pupil  to  realize  his  relations 
to  the  school  and  its  activities  is  not  legislation,  but 
experience ;   not  law,  but  drill.     When  a  school  is  so 
conducted   that    pupils    habitually   and   freely  observe 
their  relations  to  it  and  to  each  other,  the  school  itself 


1 82  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

becomes  a  teacher  of  fitness  and  unfitness  in  action, 
and  the  pupil's  sense  of  right  increasingly  regulates  his 
conduct.  In  such  a  school  there  is  no  need  of  a  code 
of  rules ;  for  each  pupil  is  a  law  to  himself,  his  sense  of 
right  and  propriety  becoming  at  once  the  principle  and 
the  impulse  of  duty. 

9.   SENSE  OF  DUTY. 

We  now  reach  the  supreme  motive  in  human  con- 
duct, —  the  sense  of  duty.  This  motive  is  expressed  by 
three  words,  —  ditty,  implying  something  due;  obliga- 
«Last  tion,  implying  something  bound ;  and  ought, 

word."  implying  something  owed.  The  sense  of 
duty  implies  not  only  the  perception,  but  the  feeling  of 
an  obligation  to  pay  what  is  due  or  owed.  It  is  the 
most  imperative  of  all  the  motives.  What  a  man  ought 
to  do,  —  whether  to  himself,  to  others,  to  society,  or  to 
God,  —  that  he  is  bound  to  do ;  and  there  is  no  escape 
from  the  obligation.  Coleridge  truly  calls  the  im- 
perative ought  "  the  last  word  in  the  vocabulary  of 
duty." 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  add  that  the  school  should 

make  this  incentive  an  active  and  controlling  principle 

in  the   conduct  of  its  pupils.     This  cannot  be  accom- 

Dutyinthe  plished  by  discrediting  or  ignoring  it,  or  by 

school,  substituting  for  it  lower  and  less  authorita- 
tive motives.  There  must  be  a  constant  and  confident 
appeal  to  the  pupil's  sense  of  obligation,  —  the  strongest 
and  noblest  motive  to  which  the  human  will  responds. 

It  ought  to  go  without  the  saying,  that  no  teacher 
who  disregards  conscience,  who  treats  moral  obligation 
as  if  it  may  be  a  delusion,  can  ever  awaken  effectively 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES.  183 

the  sense  of  duty  in  a  child.     Duty  is  the  call  of  God. 
Ought  is  the  ethical    imperative.      It  is  he    Teacher.s 
alone  who   feels   and   honors  these  verities     sense  of 
of  conduct  in  his  own  life,  who  can  stir  them       Duty- 
into  vigor  in  another.     Duty  incarnate  is  an  inspiration, 
as  duty  done  is  its  own  blessed  reward. 

"  Do  what  conscience  says  is  right ; 
Do  what  reason  says  is  best ; 
Do  with  all  your  mind  and  might; 
Do  your  duty  and  be  blest." 

Love  and  Fear  as  Incentives. 

There  are  two  other  incentives  (commonly  so  re- 
garded) that  call  for  special  consideration  in  this  con- 
nection. These  are  love  and  fear.  The  differences  of 
opinion  respecting  the  use  of  these  feelings  as  school 
incentives  arise  largely  from  imperfect  knowledge  of 
their  true  office  or  function.  Let  us  consider  each, 
though  briefly. 

LOVE. 

Love  has  its  highest  efficiency  in  school  training  when 
it  inspires  the  teacher's  efforts  ;  and  for  this  reason  it 
has  seemed  best  to  treat  it,  not  as  an  incen-  Love  wins 
tive,  but  as  an  element  of  the  teacher's  Love- 
power,  as  has  already  been  done  (p.  30).  Whatever  of 
value  love  has  as  an  incentive  for  pupils  is  largely  se- 
cured through  the  teacher's  love  for  them.  The  attempt 
to  win  the  love  of  pupils  by  formal  devices,  rarely,  if 
ever,  succeeds.  The  heart  of  a  child  is  shy  of  studied 
approaches,  but  is  quick  to  respond  to  the  silent  appeal 
of  true  affection.  Love  begets  love.  "  We  love  Him, 
because  He  first  loved  us,"  is  a  law  as  well  as  a  fact. 


1 84  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

Besides,  love  cannot  well  be  made  a  special  or  separate 

incentive  to  effort  or  conduct.      It  is  rather  the  sup- 

supporter     POI"ter  and  quickener  of  all  right  incentives. 

of  aii       It  is  in  and  back  of  all  motives,  just  as  the 

incentives,   suniight  js  m  ancj  fack  of    all   animal    and 

plant  life  and  growth.  Love  is,  indeed,  the  one  vital  con- 
dition of  the  efficiency  of  all  motive  influence.  When 
love  is  wanting,  the  best  incentives  are  feeble ;  when 
love  is  present,  the  feeble  incentive  becomes  strong. 
Love  makes  obedience  a  joy,  and  service  a  delight. 
It  is  the  inspirer  of  the  noblest  deeds  and  the  sublimest 
heroism.  Love  is  the  fulfilling  of  the  law. 

Moreover,  it  is  not  wise,  as  has  been  previously  shown 
(p.  no),  to  base  the  pupils'  conduct  and  effort  too  ex- 
Love  as  clusively  on  the  element  of  personal  love  for 
Personal  the  teacher.  This  not  only  tends  to  weaken 
Element.  the  other  incentives>  but  also  to  make  the 

pupils'  conduct  too  much  dependent  on  the  teacher's 
presence  and  personality.  It  is  well  for  a  child  to  love 
his  teacher  and  try  to  please  him  ;  but  it  is  much  better 
for  the  child  to  know  and  heed  the  voice  of  honor, 
right,  and  duty.  The  teacher  cannot,  at  best,  be  long 
with  his  pupils ;  but  reason  and  conscience  will  be  life 
companions.  They  will  be  present  in  every  temptation, 
every  trial,  every  victory. 

The  writer  has  in  mind    a   teacher  who  sought    to 

secure  obedience  and  fidelity  on  the  part  of  her  pupils 

by  a  constant  appeal  to  personal  love  as  a  motive.     She 

not  only  lavished  expressions  of  affection,  but 

Example. 

caresses,  on  the  pupils  who  pleased  her ;  and 
a  failure  or  shortcoming  in  duty  was  met  with  such  ex- 
pressions as,  "  Oh  !  I  am  so  sorry  that  Georgie  does  not 
love  his  teacher  more ; "  "If  Katie  only  loved  her  teacher 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  185 

more,  how  she  would  study  !  "  etc.  In  all  this  "  gush," 
the  pupils'  attention  was  diverted  from  the  Tightness  of 
their  conduct,  from  duty  as  such,  and  directed  to  the 
personal  relation  between  them  and  their  affectionate 
teacher.  It  seems  unnecessary  to  add  that  they  failed 
to  acquire  the  habit  of  true  obedience,  —  obedience  from 
right  motives  ;  and  when  they  passed  into  the  next  grade, 
the  weakness  of  their  prior  training  was  manifest. 

FEAR. 

The  use  of  fear  as  an  incentive  formerly  character- 
ized school  discipline,  especially  in  elementary  schools. 
Fear  was  relied  upon  not  only  to  secure  good  oid-Time 
order,  but  also  diligence  in  study,  and  even  Regime, 
attention  in  class  exercises.  The  ever-present  rod  or 
"ruler"  was  a  constant  reminder  that  the  commands 
of  the  teacher  were  to  be  obeyed.  In  grammar  and 
higher  schools  the  motive  force  was  somewhat  equally 
divided  between  "  rewards  and  punishments ; "  such 
artificial  rewards  as  prizes  and  privileges  being  used  to 
allure  the  more  ambitious  pupils,  and  the  rod  or  the 
dunce  stool  to  urge  forward  the  laggards. 

Nor  has  this  old-time  regime  wholly  disappeared  from 
the  American  school.      There  may  be  less  threatening 
of  bodily  chastisement,  less  display  of  "  the  New  „  Pains 
emblems    of   force,"   but    other  "pains    and         and 
penalties  "  have  been  devised.     One  of  these    Penaltie8-" 
is  non-promotion,  and  another  suspension  from  school.     In 
some  of  our  "highly  organized   schools,"   the  fear  of 
non-promotion  is  haunting  more  children  in  their  sleep 
than  the  fear  of  the  rod  ever  did ;  and  dreams  of  "  not 
passing  "  are  quite  as  full  of  terror  as  former  dreams  of 


1 86  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

"  floggings  "  or  even  of  bears  ! l  There  are  too  many 
teachers  who  make  school  life  a  misery  by  their  unceas- 
ing dingdong  about  low  per  cents,  not  passing,  being 
dropped,  suspension,  etc.  They  play  incessantly  upon 
the  fears  of  their  pupils,  and  think  that  they  have  made 
a  point  when  they  have  frightened  some  sensitive  pupil 
into  tears.  It  is  our  belief  that  those  teachers  (few  or 
many)  who  are  zealously  using  this  non-promotion  scare 
to  impel  pupils  to  study  are  guilty  of  more  cruelty  than 
the  old-time  "wielders  of  the  birch." 

These  statements  raise  the  question,  "  Is  fear  a 
proper  school  incentive,  and,  if  so,  what  are  the  pur- 
poses and  limits  of  its  use  ?  " 

The  special  function  of  fear  is  to  restrain  from  wrong- 
doing, not  to  incite  to  effort.  Under  the  moral  govern- 

speciai      ment  of  God,  wrong  doing  is  attended  with 

Function.  }oss  or  pain,  and  right  doing  with  gain  or 
happiness.  The  fear  of  the  consequences  of  wrong 
serves  as  a  restraint ;  the  desire  for  the  results  of  right 
action,  as  an  incentive.  Fear  is  the  sentinel  to  restrain 
man  from  the  violation  of  the  laws  of  his  being  ;  desire 

1  "  Perhaps  the  stress  is  applied  too  early  to  our  little  ones;  and  I  throw 
out  this  word  of  caution  to  our  good  lady  friends  here  who  have  them  in 
charge.  Some  years  ago  I  was  passing  down  a  street  in  Indianapolis  from 
my  residence  to  my  office,  on  which  was  situated  one  of  our  public  schools. 
The  children  were  just  gathering  in  the  morning.  As  I  came  near  the 
corner,  two  sweet  little  girls,  evidently  chums,  approached  from  different 
directions,  and,  meeting  at  the  crossing,  soon  had  their  heads  close  to- 
gether, but  not  so  close  but  that  I  caught  the  conversation.  One  said  to 
the  other,  '  Oh,  I  had  such  an  awful  dream  last  night.'  Her  sympathiz- 
ing little  mate  put  her  head  still  closer,  and  said,  '  What  was  it  ?  '  — 
'Oh,'  said  the  trembling  little  one,  «  /  dreamed  I  did  not  pass  ! '  It  is 
safer  to  allow  such  little  ones  to  dream,  as  in  my  careless  country  boy- 
hood I  was  wont  to  dream,  about  bears."  —  President  Harrison's  Addrex 
at  Saratoga,  July  12,  1892. 


SCHOOL   INCENTIVES.  l8/ 

is  the  impulse,  the  spur,  to  the  right  use  and  activity  of 
his  powers.  Fear  restrains  ;  desire  incites  and  impels. 
Fear  is  negative  ;  desire  positive. 

It  is  claimed  by  some  that  fear  may  cooperate  with 
desire  in  impelling  activity  ;  but  this  view  arises  usually 
from  a  confounding  of  fear  with  aversion,  Fear  and 
which  often  does  support  desire.  The  desire  Aversion. 
for  strength  may,  for  example,  be  supported  by  an  aver- 
sion to  weakness  ;  the  desire  for  wealth,  by  an  aversion 
to  poverty ;  the  desire  for  fame,  by  an  aversion  to  ob- 
scurity, etc.  But  fear  and  aversion  are  different  feel- 
ings, and  they  differ  much  in  their  influence.  Aversion 
strengthens  the  corresponding  desire ;  fear  dissipates 
desire.  Aversion  quickens  and  energizes  activity  ;  fear 
depresses  and  arrests  it.  Aversion  directs  attention  to 
the  object  desired ;  fear  disquiets  the  mind,  and  diverts 
attention.  Instead  of  assisting  effort,  fear  prevents 
one  from  doing  his  best.  It  dissipates  energy,  distracts 
attention,  and  wastes  activity.  The  only  exception, 
perhaps,  is  what  is  called  "the  strength  of  despera- 
tion," and  this  is  simply  the  concentration  of  energy 
on  one  point,  with  a  loss  of  power  in  other  direc- 
tions. 

It  follows  that  it  is  a  serious  mistake  to  employ  fear 
as    an   incentive  to  application   or  other  school  duty. 
For  example,  the  threatening  of  punishment     Mistakes 
in  case  of  a  failure  in  spelling  or  of  imperfect      in  use 
writing  never  made  an  accurate  speller  or  a     of  Fear- 
good  writer.     Fear  puts  neither  acuteness  in  the  mind 
nor  skill  in  the  fingers.      "  Fear,"  says  Mann,   "  may 
make   a   man    run  faster  ;  but   it  is  always  from,  not 
towards,  the  post  of  duty." 


1 88  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

The  true  office  of  fear  is  to  serve  as  a  check,  not  as 
a  spur,  —  to  suppress  activity,  not  to  energize  it  ;  and 
True       *ts  use  even  as  a  restraint  to  wrong  doing  re- 
Function    quires  judgment  and  care.     If  there  be  any 
and  use.     « jast  resort "  in  school  discipline,  it  is  the 
frightening  of  pupils.     What  is  needed  to  secure  the 
best  efforts  of  pupils  is  the  inspiring  ideal,  the  awak- 
ened desire,  the  aroused  interest. 


SCHOOL  INCENTIVES.  189 

MORAL   TRAINING. 


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SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

PUNISHMENT. 
PENAL  RULES. 

THERE  are  few  occasions  in  a  good  school  for  the 
enactment  of  .rules  with  penalties.  Offenses  that  in- 
volve moral  guilt  do  not  need  to  be  formally  forbidden 
(p.  181) ;  and  those  offenses  that  interfere  with  the  suc- 
cess of  the  school,  or  with  the  interests  of  other  pupils, 
may  be  made  obvious  by  the  administration  of  the 
school  itself.  By  its  very  organization,  the  school  de- 
mands cooperative  movements  and  activities,  and  any 
failure  of  a  pupil  to  respond  to  these  demands  produces 
disorder  and  discord.  The  necessary  discipline  and  drill 
of  the  school  soon  make  duty  so  plain,  that  even  the 
youngest  pupils  do  not  need  the  guidance  of  formal 
regulations. 

For  these  and  other  reasons,  there  has  been  for  years 
past  a  gratifying  disuse  of  the  old  practice  of  running 

Reform      schools  by  a  code  of  rules  or  laws.     The  ideal 

effected,  modern  school  has  no  prohibitory  rules  with 
specified  penalties,  and  the  best  schools  more  and  more 
realize  this  ideal  in  their  actual  practice. 

When  an  occasion  arises  making  it  necessary  to  for- 
bid or  enjoin  certain  conduct,  the  wise  teacher  takes 
good  care  to  affix  to  the  rule  no  specified  penalty,  leaving 

Rules  to  this  to  his  discretion  at  the  time  (p.  101). 
be  enforced.  This  does  not  mean  that  there  is  to  be  dis- 
cretion in  the  enforcement  of  the  rule.  Laws  are  made 
to  be  observed,  and  to  this  end  they  must  be  enforced. 
No  rule  that  cannot  be  enforced  should  be  enacted  by 
a  teacher,  and  a  rule  that  does  not  need  to  be  enforced 


PUNISHMENT.  IQI 

should  not  be  kept  before  a  school.  Nothing  brings  law 
more  speedily  into  contempt  than  its  non-enforcement, 
unless  it  be  its  fitful  enforcement.  When  there  is  no 
longer  any  necessity  for  a  rule,  it  should  be  repealed. 
There  should  be  no  dead  statutes  in  a  live  school. 

The  school   should  teach  the  duty  of  obedience  to 
law  by  example  as  well  as  precept,  and  this  can  only 
be  done  by  uniformly  enforcing  obedience  to    obedience 
the  laws  that  may  be  enacted  for  the  govern-     to  Law- 
ment  of  pupils.     It  is  as  much  the  duty  of  the  teacher  j 
to  enforce  obedience  to  a  rule  as  it  is  for  the  pupils  to' 
obey  it. 

It  is  not  meant  that  every  offense  of  pupils  in  school 
should  be  punished.  This  was  the  old  idea  that  made 
the  discipline  of  the  school  such  a  terror,  not  only  to 
evil  doers,  but  to  all  who  witnessed  its  severity.  The 
point  specially  urged  is,  that  offenses  for-  Punishment 
bidden  by  penal  rules  should  be  uniformly  of  offenses, 
punished.  Nor  is  it  meant  that  only  offenses  made 
penal  by  rules  are  to  be  punished.  An  offense  subvert- 
ing school  authority,  or  one  involving  moral  guilt,  —  as 
lying,  stealing,  quarreling,  etc.,  —  may  be  as  properly 
punished  in  the  absence  of  rule  as  when  specially  for- 
bidden. In  the  absence  of  rule,  the  teacher  has  dis- 
cretion as  to  the  infliction  of  punishment :  when  there 
is  a  penal  rule,  there  is  no  discretion  as  to  the  infliction 
of  punishment,  but  only  as  to  its  nature  and  severity. 

The  test  of  the  efficiency  of  school  discipline  is  not 
the  number  of  offenses  made  penal  or  the  number  of 
offenses  punished,  but  the  freedom  of  the  school  from 
offenses  ;  just  as  the  efficiency  of  a  language  Test  of  school  I 
exercise  is  not  measured  by  the  number  of    Discipline. 
errors  hunted  up  and  marked  by  the  teacher,  but  by  the 


1 92  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

freedom  of  the  next  exercise  from  like  errors.  The  su- 
preme end  of  discipline  is  to  lead  pupils  to  choose  the 
right  and  avoid  the  wrong ;  and  this  depends  more  on 
heart  and  will  training  than  on  penal  inflictions. 

ENDS,  NATURE,  AND  CONDITIONS. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  there  may  not  only  be  occasions 
in  school  administration  for  the  enactment  of  penal 
rules,  but  that  there  may  also  be  occasions  for  the 
infliction  of  punishment ;  and  this  indicates  the  im- 
portance of  the  teacher's  being  guided  by  a  clear 
knowledge  of  the  ends,  nature,  and  conditions  of  punish- 
ment in  school. 

In  considering  this  widely  mooted  subject,  it  is  not 
our  purpose  to  announce  a  series  of  dogmatic  opinions, 
but  rather  to  assist  the  reader  in  its  helpful  study  by  a 
right  method  of  thinking.  This  means  the  ascertaining 

Mode  of  of  the  fundamental  principles  involved,  and 
Treatment,  then  seeking  their  right  application  in  prac- 
tice. To  this  end,  we  shall  begin  with  the  primary  ques- 
tion in  pedagogy,  to  wit,  the  end  or  ends  to  be  attained ; 
and,  when  this  is  settled,  we  shall  be  prepared  to 
consider  the  characteristics  or  nature  of  effective  pun- 
ishment, and  this  will  prepare  the  way  for  an  intelligent 
consideration  of  its  methods  and  spirit.  The  prepara- 
tion for  such  a  study  involves  the  freeing  of  the  mind 
from  the  influence  of  preconceived  opinions. 

I.    Ends  of  Punishment. 

The  first  and  essential  inquiry  before  us  is,  "What 
are  the  ends  or  objects  of  punishment?" 

One  of  the  most  obvious  facts  in  human  experience 


PUNISHMENT.  193 

is  that  pain  and  loss  follow  the  violation  of  beneficent 
law,  and  a  little  reflection  will  suffice  to  show  that  they 
are  the  punitive  consequences  of  such  viola- Pain  and  LOSS 
tion.  We  are  sometimes  startled  by  the  Punitive, 
fearful  results  that  follow  the  violation  of  physical  law, 
but  sin  against  man's  moral  and  spiritual  nature  is  at- 
tended with  even  severer  penalties.  There  are  no  such 
sufferings  in  this  life  as  those  that  follow  the  violation 
of  the  moral  law. 

But  pain  and  loss  are  not  simply  the  punitive  conse- 
quences of  transgression.     Their  purpose  is 
not  merely  to  vindicate  violated  law,  but  to 
prevent   its  future   violation.     They  are   the  sentinels 
that  guard  every  law  of  our  being,  and  as  such  they 
look  forward  rather  than  backward. 

What  is  true  in  this  respect  under  the  Divine  Gov- 
ernment is  true  in  human  government,  and  especially 
in  the  family  and  the  school.  Here  punish-  Human 
ment  is  a  means  to  a  future  good ;  and  where  Punishment, 
there  is  no  possibility  of  future  offenses,  there  is,  to 
say  the  least,  no  necessity  for  the  punishment  of  a 
past  offense.  Neither  the  vindication  of  justice  nor 
the  ill  deserts  of  the  offender  call  for  the  infliction 
of  punishment  by  parent  or  teacher  when  nothing  in 
the  future  demands  it}  It  is  the  possibility  that  the 
offense,  if  not  punished,  may  be  repeated,  or  that  others 
may  be  thus  influenced  to  commit  it,  that  justifies  its 
punishment. 

We  thus  reach  the  fact  that  the  one  comprehensive 

1  This  statement  refers  to  punishment  in  the  present  life,  inflicted  by 
human  authority.     The  writer  does  not  assume  thus  to  limit  God's  punish- 
ment of  transgression.     He  is  now  discussing  the  human  side  of  punish- 
ment, and  this  faces  the  future. 
13 


194  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

end  of  punishment  is  to  prevent  wrongdoing.     This  may 
be  accepted  as  a  fundamental  principle. 

But   the   prevention    of    wrongdoing   as    an    end   of 
punishment  is  too  general  to  serve  fully  our  present 
special      purpose,  and  so  we  need  to  seek  for  more 
Ends.      immediate  and  special  ends.     These  will  ap- 
pear when  it  is  seen  that  punishment  prevents  wrong- 
doing (i)  by  reforming  the  wrongdoer,  (2)  by  deterring 
others  from  wrongdoing,  and  (3)  by  condemning  wrong- 
doing, thus  lessening  the  desire  to  do  wrong.     These 
three  ends  may  be  considered  the  special  objects  of 
punishment. 

FIRST  END. 

The  first  immediate  end  of  punishment  in  school  is 
to  reform  the  wrongdoer. 

It  follows  that  the  first  questions  to  be  asked  by  the 
teacher,  when  considering  the  propriety  of  punishing  a 
Questions    PUP^>  are>  "What  will  be  the  effect  of  the 
for        proposed   punishment  on   the   pupil  ?     Will 
Teacher.     it  hdp  him  to  needed  Self-control  ?     Will  it 
make  him  better  ? "     If  these  questions  cannot  be  con- 
fidently answered   in    the  affirmative,  the    punishment 
should  at  least  be  deferred  until  other  inquiries   can 
be  instituted. 

Moreover,  the  teacher  may  be  fully  satisfied  that  the 
proposed  punishment  will  be  helpful  to  the  pupil,  and 
other      vet  ke  wise  in  deferring  it.     The  necessity  of 
Considera-  punishment  is  always  to  be  considered,  and 
tions.       here  a  carefuj  distinction  is  to  be  made  be- 
tween the  ill  deserts  of  an  offender  and  his  need  of 
punishment.      A   pupil    may  deserve   punishment    and 
yet  may  not  need  it.     There  may  be  other  and  better 


PUNISHMENT.  1 9  5 

means  of  securing  his  reformation.  School  administra- 
tion presents  frequent  occasions  for  the  comparison  of 
means  with  a  view  of  using  the  best,  —  the  most  effec- 
tive. Punishment  is  never  necessary,  if  justifiable, 
when  better  means  will  accomplish  the  desired  end.1 

SECOND  END. 

The  second  end  of  punishment  is  to  deter  others  f row*  \ 
wrongdoing,  —  to  serve  as  a  warning. 

This  is  accomplished  by  bringing  the  motive  of  fear 
to  bear  upon  those  who  may  be  disposed  to  do  the 
wrong  for  which  the  offender  is  punished.      Fear  a 
The  punishment  thus  serves  as  a  restraint,  a    Restraint.      / 
warning,  and  so  prevents  or  lessens  wrongdoing.     It  is  i 
here  that  fear  has  a  legitimate  place  in  school  discipline, 
as  well  as  in  the  state ;  and  the  appeal  to  it  may  not 
only  be  right,  but  necessary  (p.  186). 

This  restraining  influence  of  punishment  is  an  im- 
portant consideration  in  determining  the  propriety  of 
its    infliction.     The    wise    teacher   will    ask,      second 
"  Is  this  punishment  needed  to  restrain  other    Question, 
pupils    from    the    commission    of   the    offense?"     The 
answer  to  this  question  does  not   depend  on  the  sim- 
ple fact  that  the  punishment  is   fitted  to   serve  as   a 
warning.      The    more    important   consideration    is    the 
need  of  the  warning.     The  offense  may  be  one  that  no 
other  pupil  is  likely  to  commit ;  and  so  there  may  be 

1  In  his  first  experience  as  principal  of  a  graded  school,  the  writer 
punished  three  boys  with  a  whip.  The  future  conduct  of  one  of  these 
boys  indicated  that  his  punishment  was  wise.  In  the  other  two  cases,  he 
clearly  made  a  mistake,  and  yet  he  pleads  as  some  extenuation  of  each 
blunder,  that  he  acted  on  the  earnest  solicitation  of  the  boy's  father,  and 
not  on  his  own  better  judgment. 


196  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

no  occasion,  much  less  a  necessity,  for  the  warning. 
On  the  contrary,  the  offense  may  be  one  which  other 
pupils  may  be  tempted  to  commit,  if  there  be  no  puni- 
tive restraint. 

In  view  of  these   two  ends  of  punishment,  it  must 
suffice  to  add  here,  that  when  a  teacher  is  fully  assured 
Both  Ends    that    a  punishment  will   be    helpful    to   the 
considered,  pupil  punished,  and  is  also  needed  as  a  warn- 
ing and  restraint  to  others,  his  way  is  clear,  provided 
other  means  will  not  better  accomplish  the  same  ends. 
On  the  contrary,  if  a  punishment  is  not  likely  to  make 
the  wrongdoer  better,  and  is  not  needed  as  a  warning 
to  others,  its  infliction  is  both  unwise  and  unnecessary. 

THIRD  END. 

The  third  end  of  punishment  is  to  condemn  wrong- 
doing;  i.e.,  to  express  the  judgment  of  rightful  authority 
as  to  the  wrongness  of  an  act. 

Under  God's   government,  the  right  issues  in  gain, 

and  the  wrong  in  pain  or  loss ;  and  the  gain  is  a  reward 

for  the  right,  and   the  pain  or  loss   a  pen- 

Punishment 

enhances  alty  for  the  wrong.  Pain  and  privation  are 
sense  of  ordained  punishments  for  wrongdoing,  and 
their  purpose  is  to  prevent  it.  Besides,  pun- 
ishment enhances  our  conception  of  the  nature  and 
guilt  of  a  wrong  act,  and  becomes  a  measure  and 
indicator  of  the  degree  of  such  guilt.  It  may,  indeed, 
be  doubted  whether  our  intuitive  knowledge  of  right 
and  wrong  would  greatly  influence  our  conduct,  if  good 
and  evil  were  not  respectively  associated  with  right  and 
wrong  as  consequences.  The  law  speaks  in  vain  to  a  man 
insensible  to  pain  or  loss. 


PUNISHMENT.  1 97 

This  principle  explains  the  fact  that  offenses  in  the 
state  which  are  not  punished  by  law  are  not  regarded 
by  the  people  as  so  culpable  as  those  which  Illustration 
are  punished.  The  fact  that  an  act  is  made  of 
a  penal  offense  enhances  the  public  appre-  FnnciPle- 
ciation  of  its  guilt;  this,  too,  independent  of  the  fact 
that  it  is  a  violation  of  positive  law.  For  example, 
there  was  a  time  when  the  selling  of  intoxicating  liquor 
to  a  minor  was  not  generally  deemed  a  serious  offense ; 
but  the  making  of  such  an  act  a  crime  (as  is  now 
true  in  all  the  states,  with  possibly  a  few  exceptions) 
has  greatly  enhanced  the  public  estimate  of  its  guilt: 
The  law  condemns  the  offense  as  a  crime,  and  the  pun- 
ishment inflicted  for  a  violation  of  the  law  is  an  im- 
pressive reminder  of  the  turpitude  of  the  crime.  "  The 
law  is  our  schoolmaster,"-  — a  quickener  of  the  con- 
science and  a  clarifier  of  the  moral  judgment.  Many 
other  illustrations  of  this  fact  might  be  given. 

It  is  conceded  that  this  end  of  punishment,  so  im- 
portant in  the  state,  has  a  comparatively  small  place  in 
the  school.  It  is  within  the  teacher's  power  pucein 
to  educate  the  conscience  by  better  means  school, 
than  penal  inflictions ;  and  an  increasing  number  of 
teachers  are  learning  that  neither  law  nor  penalties  are 
needed  to  enable  them  to  enforce  duty  and  restrain 
wrong.  And  yet  there  are  schools,  too  many,  in  which 
both  law  and  punishment  may  still  be  needed  to  bring 
home  to  the  lawless  and  disobedient  the  culpability  of 
their  conduct. 

We  omit  the  consideration  of  two  objects  of  punish- 
ment often  strongly  urged;  to  wit,  (i)  the  sustaining 
of  the  dignity  of  the  law,  and  (2)  the  protection  of 


198  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

others.     The  first  is  not  a  true  end,  but  a  means  to 

an  end,  —  the  securing  of  obedience  to  the  law.     The 

dignity  of  the  law  is  sustained  that  it  may  be 

Other  Ends.        &        J 

a  terror  to  evil  doers,  and  this  will  receive 
due  attention  when  the  characteristics  of  punishment 
are  considered.  The  second  of  these  alleged  objects 
—  the  protection  of  others  —  has  a  small  place  in  the 
family  or  in  the  school.  It  has,  however,  an  important 
place  in  civil  government,  the  protection  of  life  and 
property  being  one  of  its  recognized  functions.  The 
state  properly  deprives  the  criminal  of  liberty  to  insure 
the  safety  of  the  life  or  property  of  its  citizens.  The 
school  has  other  means  for  the  attainment  of  its  ends. 

//.  Characteristics  of  Punishment. 

Our  next  inquiry  relates  to  the  nature  of  the  punish- 
ment that  best  attains  these  ends ;  and,  for  our  present 
purpose,  the  inquiry  may  be  put  in  this  form :  "  What 
are  the  characteristics  of  effective  punishment?" 

FIRST  CHARACTERISTIC. 

Punishment  should  be  certain.  More  depends  on  the 
certainty  of  punishment  than  on  its  severity.  A  mild 
punishment  uniformly  administered  is  more  effective 
for  reformation  or  for  warning  than  a  severe 
punishment  fitfully  administered.  This  prin- 
ciple is  so  fully  illustrated  in  penal  experience,  that  it 
seems  unnecessary  to  cite  examples.  It  is  generally 
conceded  that  the  special  weakness  in  the  government 
of  American  cities  is  the  fitful  and  uncertain  enforce- 
ment of  law,  especially  laws  for  the  suppression  of 
crime  and  vice.  When  crime  is  fitfully  punished,  crim- 


PUNISHMENT.  1 99 

inals  count  and  take  their  chances,  and  crime  abounds. 
The  spasms  of  law  enforcement,  sometimes  occasioned 
by  the  uprising  of  the  people,  serve  only  as  temporary 
checks  to  vice  and  lawlessness.     Neither  the  law,  nor  thef 
officer  sworn  to  execute  it,  is  "  a  terror  to  evil  doers." 

We  have  a  perfect  model  of  law  enforcement  in  the 
Divine  Government,  in  which  penalty  invariably  follows 
transgression.      Every  time  we  put  our  fingers  into  the 
fire  we  are  burned,  and  thus  even  a  child  Certaintyof 
learns  to  keep  out  of  the  fire.     An  unsup-    Nature's 
ported  body  invariably  falls  to  the  ground,    Penalties- 
and  man  learns  not  to  leap  from  high  precipices.     Every 
law  that  touches  man's  nature  is  characterized  by  cer- 
tain enforcement ;  and  the  transgressor  learns,  often  by 
sad  experience,  that  it  is  not  only  sinful,  but  foolish, 
to  violate  the  beneficent  laws  of  his  being. 

This   principle  has  its   special  application   in   school 
discipline  in  the  enforcement  of  penal  rules.     When  a 
law  is  enacted,  forbidding  an  offense,  the  law  must  be 
uniformly  enforced ;  and  when  a  law  cannot  Application 
or  ought  not  to  be  enforced,  it    should    be    in  school 
repealed  (p.  190).     It  is  not  meant  that  the    DisciPline- 
punishment  inflicted  must  be  always  the  same  in  kind 
or  degree,  but  it  should  be  certain.     There  must  be  no 
counting  of  chances  when  formal  rule  forbids  an  offense 
in  school. 

The  teacher  has  greater  freedom  and  discretion  in 
treating  offenses  which  are  not  forbidden  by  positive 
law ;  and  it  is  here  that  the  important  questions  raised, 
in   discussing  the  ends  of  punishment,  can  offenses  not 
be  more  fully  considered  and  applied.      The    forbidden, 
teacher  is  not  shut  up  to  the  infliction  of  punishment, 
but  other  means  for  attaining  the  desired  ends  are  open 


2OO  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

to  him.  Formal  law  and  penalty  have  at  best  but  a 
small  place  in  school  discipline  whose  supreme  end  is 
character  training.  But  when  law  is  invoked,  there  must 
be  certainty  in  its  enforcement. 

SECOND  CHARACTERISTIC. 

Punishment  should  be  just ;  i.e.,  it  should  bear  a  just 
relation  to  the  offense. 

Justice  first  demands  that  punishment  be  propor- 
tionate to  the  offense  in  quantity  or  degree.  This  does 
not  simply  mean  that  the  greater  the  offense  the  greater 
the  punishment,  but  that  punishment  must 

Justice. 

not  be  greater  than  is  needed  to  secure  its 
ends.  There  must  be  no  excess  of  severity,  and  this 
involves  due  consideration  of  the  conditions  that  affect 
the  sensibility  of  those  punished,  including  age,  sex, 
home  training,  etc.  On  the  contrary,  punishment  must 
not  be  so  light  as  to  fail  of  its  purpose  and  beget  a  con- 
tempt for  it.  Such  a  punishment  would  not  only  be 
useless,  but  would  do  more  harm  than  good. 

Justice  next  requires  that  punishment  be  adapted  to 

the  offense  in  quality  or  kind ;  i.e.,  that  it  have  some 

quality  that  "fits"  the  offense,  —  what  Bentham  calls 

Adaptation   "  characteristicalness."     Nothing  much  more 

to  offense,  surely  offends  one's  sense  of  justice  than  the 

infliction    of     the    same    punishment    for   very    unlike 

offenses. 

These  important  principles  of  justice  are  increasingly 
embodied    in   penal    legislation.       They    have,    indeed, 
Penal       characterized  the  penal  reforms  of  the  past 
Legislation,  two  centuries.      More  and  more  have  penal- 
ties been  made  commensurate  in  degree  with  the  hei- 
nousness  of  offenses,  and  more  and  more  have  penalties 


PUNISHMENT.  2OI 

been  fitted  in  kind  to  offenses.  "  No  distinction  in 
punishment,  none  in  guilt,"  is  a  law  maxim  increasingly 
recognized  in  penal  codes. 

Blackstone  tells  us  that  before  the  time  of  Sir  Edward 
Coke  there  were  one  hundred  and  sixty  crimes  in  Eng- 
land  that    were,  by  laws  of  Parliament,  punished    by 
death  ;  and  now  one  can  count  on  the  fingers     English 
of  one  hand  all  the  capital  crimes  in  Great  illustration. 
Britain,  not  including  those  in  the  army  and  the  navy ; 
and  these  beneficent  reforms  have  been  attended  with 
no  increase  in  the  number  of  crimes  committed. 

What  has  been  truly  called  the  "  bloody  code "  of 
Napoleon  I.  made  highway  robbery,  with  or  without  an 
attempt  on  life,  a  capital  crime,  punishable  by  death, 
and  the  statistics  of  France  under  it  show  French 
that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  highway  illustration, 
robbery  was  attended  with  murder.  The  act  of  robbery 
forfeited  the  criminal's  life ;  and,  since  "  dead  men  tell 
no  tales,"  he  slew  his  victim  to  enhance  his  chances  of 
escape.  When  the  code  was  so  amended  as  to  make 
imprisonment  the  penalty  for  highway  robbery  with  no 
attempt  on  life,  the  number  of  cases  of  highway  robbery 
did  not  increase,  while  the  number  of  murders  accom- 
panying robbery  did  not  exceed  one  to  ten  under  the 
former  code. 

These  are  but  illustrations  of  the  changes  which  have 
taken  place  in  the  criminal  codes  of  the  civilized  world. 
They  have  also  appeared  in  prison  and  alms-      penai 
house  discipline,  and  especially  in  the  family    Reforms, 
and  in  the  school.     The  rod  has  ceased  to  be  the  uni- 
versal instrument  of  punishment. 

No  principle  needs  to  be  more  carefully  observed  by 
the  teacher  than  justice.     An  unjust  punishment  always 


2O2  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

does  more  harm  than  good,  and  usually  it  does  only 
harm.  No  mistake  in  school  discipline  is  more  likely 

Application  to  occasi°n  trouble  than  the  punishing  of  a 
to  school  pupil  in  such  a  manner  as  to  create  the 

Discipline.  feeimg  tnat  jt  was  unjust>     jt  js  far  better 

for  the  teacher  to  err  on  the  side  of  leniency  than  on 

that  of  severity.     Neither  an  unusual  provocation,  nor 

anger,  nor  a  pupil's  apparent  stubbornness,  can  ever  be 

pleaded  as  an  excuse  for  punishing  a  child  too  severely. 

An   eminent   Ohio  surgeon1  gives  this  account   of  a 

whipping  which  he  received  in  school.     He  playfully 

pricked  a  seat  mate  slightly  with  a  pin,  when 

Illustration.    ,11  •     i  ,TI          •  •    i   •  i  >» 

the  boy  cried  out,  "  John  is  pricking  me ! 
The  teacher,  a  Scotchman,  seized  a  whip,  and  ordered 
him  to  take  his  place  on  the  floor.  As  he  did  so,  the 
teacher  seized  him  by  the  collar,  and  demanded  that  he 
make  immediate  apology  to  the  boy.  He  saw  nothing 
to  make  an  apology  for,  and  was  silent ;  whereupon  the 
teacher  applied  the  blows  vigorously,  stopping  now  and 
then  to  ask,  "  Will  you  apologize  ? "  The  whips  were 
soon  used  up ;  and  the  teacher,  suspending  the  whip- 
ping for  the  time,  sent  two  boys  to  the  bushes  to  cut 
half  a  dozen  hazel  switches  some  three  feet  in  length. 
After  recess  he  resumed  the  flogging  with  new  whips, 
soon  arousing  the  indignation  of  the  pupils  at  his 
severity.  At  this  juncture  a  timid  girl,  who  never 
spoke  loud  enough  to  be  easily  heard,  stepped  to  the 
teacher,  and  said  something  in  a  low  voice.  The  teacher 
raised  his  hands  and  said,  "  I  am  glad  to  announce  that 
Kate  apologizes  for  John,"  and  the  flogging  there  ended. 
"  My  back,"  said  the  surgeon  to  the  writer,  "was  black 
and  blue  from  my  shoulders  to  my  hips,  and  for  several 
days  my  father  had  fears  of  my  life. " 

»  Dr.  John  W.  Hamilton. 


PUNISHMENT.  2O3 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  add,  that  cruelty,  as  the 
depriving  of  a  child  of  necessary  food,  or  the  infliction 
of  tortures,  has  no  place  in  the  penal  inflictions  of  any 
civilized  people. 

THIRD  CHARACTERISTIC. 

Punishment  should  be  natural ;  i.e.,  it  should  sustain 
a  natural  relation  to  the  offense. 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  under 
God's  moral  government,  called  by  some  Nature's  gov- 
ernment, pain  or  loss  follows  transgression  as  discipli-. 
nary  consequences,  and  these  penalties  are  said  to  be 
natural  or  consequential.  The  results  that  follow  the 
violation  of  physical  law  are  obvious  conse-  Punishm.nt 
quences ;  and  the  same  is  true,  though  per-  by  conse- 
haps  less  obvious,  in  the  violation  of  the  laws  <iuence- 
of  one's  moral  and  spiritual  nature.  Falsehood,  dishon- 
esty, slander,  jealousy,  malice,  etc.,  are  all  attended 
with  natural  reactions,  —  falsehood  by  a  loss  of  confi- 
dence, slander  by  a  loss  of  esteem  and  often  by  defama- 
tion in  return,  jealousy  by  a  loss  of  happiness,  etc. 
These  painful  consequences  of  wrongdoing  constitute 
no  small  part  of  the  discipline  of  life.  Men  thus  learn 
by  experience,  often  by  bitter  experience,  that  "the 
way  of  the  transgressor  is  hard." 

There  are  other  penalties  which  do  not  inevitably  fol- 
low transgression,  and  yet  have  so  close  a  relation  to  it 
that  they  seem  natural  reactions.     The  abuse    Porfeiture 
of  a  right  or  privilege,  for  example,  works     and  Res- 
by  a  natural  principle  of  justice  its  forfeit-     tltutlon- 
ure,  and  such  a  penalty  is  properly  called  natural.     The 
same  is  true  of  the  penalty  called  restitution,  the  mak- 
ing good  any  loss  or  damage  to  the  property  of  another. 


204  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Two  illustrations,  the  one  from  the  family  and  the 
other  from  the  school,  will  suffice  to  make  clear  the 

niustra-  distinction  between  natural  and  artificial  pun- 
tions.  ishment,  and  also  to  show  the  application  of 
'the  former  in  correcting  wrongdoing. 

Two  fathers  give  a  son  a  pocketknife,  and  each  ac- 
companies the  gift  with  the  injunction  that  nothing 

Family  useful  must  be  injured  with  the  knife.  Each 
son  disobeys  the  injunction  by  whittling  the 
front  gate.  One  of  the  fathers  calls  his  son  to  him,  and, 
pointing  out  his  offense,  says,  "  Harry,  you  have  dis- 
obeyed me,  and  I  must  whip  you,"  and,  suiting  the 
action  to  the  word,  he  gives  the  boy  a  whipping.  This 
is  one  way  to  correct  the  offense,  and  it  may  be  effect- 
ive. The  other  father  calls  his  son  to  him,  explains 
the  nature  of  his  offense,  and  says,  "  Harry,  you  have 
forfeited  your  knife.  Give  it  back  to  me."  The  father 
takes  the  knife,  and  keeps  it  too,  until,  in  the  future,  he 
can  restore  it,  with  full  confidence  that  it  will  not  be 
misused.  The  second  Harry  will  doubtless  shed  as 
many  tears  as  the  first,  but  they  have  a  different  source, 
and  work  out  a  different  moral  result. 

Two  teachers  find  it  necessary,  in  their  judgment,  to» 
forbid  profanity  on  the  playground,  and  in  each  schooli 
a  boy  violates  the  rule.  One  of  the  teachers 
calls  the  offender  to  account,  and,  having 
properly  set  forth  the  nature  of  the  offense,  says, 
"  John,  you  have  violated  the  rule  by  a  wicked  act,  and 
I  must  whip  you,"  and,  suiting  the  action  to  the  word, 
he  gives  the  boy  a  whipping,  either  before  the  school 
or  privately,  as  he  may  deem  wise.  This  is  one  way  to 
correct  profanity,  but  few  teachers  have  thus  been  able 
to  banish  it  from  the  playground.  The  other  teacher 


PUNISHMENT.  20$ 

calls  the  offender  to  him,  and,  having  explained  the 
offense  as  an  abuse  of  a  privilege,  says,  "John,  you 
have  forfeited  the  privilege  to  take  your  recess  on  the 
playground  with  the  other  boys.  Hereafter,  you  will  / 
take  your  brief  recess  after  the  other  boys  have  come  !" 
in ;  but,  when  I  am  satisfied  that  you  will  observe  the 
rule,  I  shall  be  glad  to  restore  the  privilege  now  taken 
from  you."  This  second  John  can  but  feel  that  his 
punishment  is  just,  and  it  will  not  be  many  days  before 
he  will  be  ready  to  give  such  assurances  as  will  justify 
the  removal  of  the  penalty. 

The  use  of  this  principle  of  forfeiture  now  character- 
izes the  reformed  system  of  prison  discipline.  There 
was  a  time  when  for  speaking ,  to  another  Prison 
prisoner  in  the  "lock-step  "  march  to  the  so- ^Discipline, 
called  dining  table,  the  offender  would  be  taken  before 
the  assembled  prisoners  and  flogged  with  a  "  cat "  as  a 
warning.  Now  the  prisoner  who  thus  breaks  the  rule 
of  the  prison,  simply  forfeits  the  right  to  go  to  the  table 
with  his  fellow-prisoners,  and  is  obliged  to  eat  alone 
in  his  cell.  He  has  not  only  forfeited  liberty  by  his 
crime,  but  he  now  forfeits  a  privilege  in  prison  by  its 
abuse.  This  principle  is  also  increasingly  recognized 
in  the  discipline  of  our  best  almshouses  and  reforma- 
tories. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  give  other  examples  of  pun- 
ishment by  consequence  or  forfeiture.     It  must  suffice 
to  add,  that,  if  we  were  sufficiently  keen-eyed,    wide  AP- 
we  would  see  right  beside  every  offense  of    potion, 
childhood  a  natural  consequence,  which,  if  uniformly  and 
wisely  enforced,  would  be  usually  effective.     It  is  clear 
that  such  a  punishment  appeals  strongly  to  the  sense 
of  justice,  and  that  it  is  free  from  those  brutalizing 


206  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

tendencies  that  sometimes  accompany  the  infliction  of 
arbitrary  penalties. 

It  must,  however,  be  conceded  that  the  successful 
administration  of  a  system  of  natural  punishment  in 
i-  tne  family  or  in  the  school  requires  higher 
qualifications  in  the  governor  than  an  artifi- 
^j  svstem  ^ny  parent  or  teacher  can  slap, 
shake,  or  whip  a  child.  This  requires  only  impulse  and 
muscle ; 1  but  it  requires  self-control,  firmness,  patience, 
ingenuity,  judgment,  and  sympathy  to  suppress  the 
impulse  to  strike  the  offender,  and  effectually  to  enforce 
natural  penalties. 

The  experience  of  the  schools  shows,  that,  as  teachers 

increase  in  skill  and  personal  influence,  mild  and  natural 

school  EX-  punishments  are  found  to  be  more  and  more 

perience.  effective ;  and  this  indicates  that  all  benefi- 
cent reforms  in  school  discipline  necessarily  wait  on  the 
improvement  of  the  teachers.  There  were  once  many 
schools  (there  may  possibly  be  a  few  now)  in  which 
the  rod  represented  more  controlling  influence  than  the 
teacher. 

It  is  also  true  that  the  school  has  penal  limitations 

not  experienced  in  the  family,  and  some  of  these  are 

Family  and   imposed    by  family  interests,  but    more    by 

school,  family  training.  It  is  only  when  the  interests 
and  training  of  the  family  and  school  are  in  harmony 
that  the  best  results  in  school  discipline  are  attainable. 
It  is  also  true  that  the  school  has  some  advantages  over 
the  family  in  discipline.  Many  a  child  that  is  governed 
with  difficulty  at  home,  is  easily  controlled  in  school. 

1  "The  rough  and  ready  style  of  government  is  indeed  practicable  by 
the  meanest  and  most  uncultivated  intellects."  —  HERBERT  SPENCER, 
Education,  p.  215. 


PUNISHMENT.  2O? 

Certain  natural  penalties  —  suspension,  for  example  — 
can  only  be  used  in  school. 

///.    Limitations  and  Conditions  of  Natural 

Punishment. 

\ 

This  leads  to  the  inquiry,  "  Has  the  principle  of  pun- 
ishment by  consequence  any  natural  limitations  in 
school  and  family  discipline  ? "  When  is  a  parent  or 
teacher  justified  in  the  use  of  corporal  punishment? 

There  is  at  least  one  obvious  limitation  of  natural  pun- 
ishment, and  this  is  the  existence  of  insubordination  or 
rebellion.1  Suppose,  for  illustration,  that  the  Rebellion 
second  Harry,  referred  to  above,  should  meet  a  Limit- 
his  father's  direction  to  give  back  the  forfeited  knife 
with,  "  I  won't  do  it,"  and  then  flee  from  his  presence. 
Suppose  the  second  John  should  meet  the  teacher's  order 
to  remain  in  at  recess  with,  "  I  shall  take  my  recess  with 
the  boys,  and  shall  not  stay  in."  Is  not  the  assigned 
natural  punishment  in  each  case  broken  down  by  rebel- 
lion ?  Rebellion  is  the  end  of  authority,  if  it  be  not  sub- 
dued. Would  it  not  be  clearly  the  second  father's  duty 
to  make  Harry  return  promptly  and  give  him  the  knife  ? 
Would  it  not  be  as  clearly  the  second  teacher's  duty  to 
make  John  remain  in  at  recess  ?  Insubordination  to 
rightful  authority  may  be  properly  met  by  force.  When 
lawless  men  set  at  defiance  the  civil  authority,  then  is 
the  time  for  the  police  force,  and,  if  need  be,  military 

1  For  a  valuable  discussion  of  punishment  by  natural  consequence,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  essay  on  moral  education,  in  Education,  by 
Herbert  Spencer  (1860).  While  Mr.  Spencer  concedes  that  the  practica- 
bility of  the  system  depends  much  on  domestic,  social,  and  civil  condi- 
tions, and  especially  on  the  character  of  those  who  administer  it,  he  does 
not  seem  to  recognize  the  limitation  here  stated. 


208  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

force.  So,  when  a  child  rebels  against  the  authority  of 
the  parent  or  the  teacher,  the  use  of  the  rod  to  compel 
obedience  may  be  justifiable.  Open  insubordination 
may  not  only  justify,  but  even  make  necessary,  a  resort 
to  proper  corporal  chastisement. 

A  lady  who  had  had  unusual  success  in  country  schools 

was  once  employed  to  take  charge  of  a  Cleveland  school 

which  two  successive  teachers  had  failed  t« 

Illustration. 

control.  Nothing  was  said  to  her  respecting 
the  condition  of  the  school,  and  she  took  charge  of  it, 
anticipating  a  pleasant  experience  in  teaching  in  the  city. 
At  noon  she  returned  to  her  boarding  place  in  tears, 
and  said  to  her  brother  that  she  could  do  nothing  with 
the  boys,  and  had  made  up  her  mind  to  resign  and  go 
back  into  the  country.  "  I  have  done  my  best  to  inter- 
est the  boys,"  she  added,  "and  they  have  simply  run 
over  me.  Boys  have  gone  head  first  out  of  the  windows 
this  morning  and  back  again,  whistling  at  me."-  —  "Do 
not  think  of  resigning,  Mary,"  said  the  brother,  "  but 
go  back  and  put  your  school  in  order,  and  give  the  boys 
a  lesson  in  prompt  obedience.  Ask  them  to  rise  quietJy 
at  the  beck  of  your  hand.  If  a  boy  fails  to  respond, 
attend  to  him''  •  —  "  Shall  I  whip  ?  "  asked  the  troubled 
teacher.  "  Whip  ?  Yes,  if  necessary,"  said  the  brother, 
"  and  I  will  furnish  the  whips.  Your  school  is  in  rebel- 
lion." She  sighed,  but  took  the  whips  furnished,  and 
returned  to  her  school  "  to  try  the  experiment."  She 
came  back  at  the  close  of  school  with  a  look  of  victory 
in  her  face.  "  Well,  Mary,"  said  the  brother,  "  what 
kind  of  a  school  did  you  have  this  afternoon  ? "  —  "I 
had  an  excellent  school,"  she  replied,  "the  last  hour."  — 
"  But  what  of  the  first  hour  ?  "  said  the  brother.  "  I  do 
not  like  to  say."  —  "Did  you  whip?" — "Whip!  I 


PUNISHMENT. 

whipped  a  half  dozen  boys  the  first  twenty  minutes,  but 
they  '  toed  the  mark  '  after  that.  I  am  going  to  have  a 
beautiful  school."  That  lady  taught  in  the  schools  of 
Cleveland  until  she  went  to  her  reward,  and  she  never 
whipped  another  pupil.  It  is  a  good  many  years  since 
the  writer  gave  the  above  advice,  but  he  would  give  it 
to-day  under  like  circumstances. 

It  is  true  that  open  insubordination  in  school  may  be 
met  by  suspension,  —  a  natural  punishment,  —  but  this 
is  not  feasible  in  the  family ;  and,  in  our 

Suspension. 

judgment,  small  boys  ought  not  to  be  sus- 
pended from  school.1  What  they  specially  need  is  to 
be  controlled  in  school,  control  being  every  child's  birth- 
right. In  the  case  of  pupils  under,  say,  twelve  years 
of  age,  suspension  from  school  should  certainly  be  the 
last  resort,  not  the  first ;  but  when  pupils  are  over  four- 
teen years  of  age,  —  old  enough  to  know  the  value  of 
school  privileges,  —  suspension  may  wisely  be  the  first 
resort  in  case  of  insubordination.  The  decisive  fact  is 
that  insubordination  and  rebellion  cannot  be  tolerated 
or  trifled  with  in  any  school.  On  the  contrary,  so  long 
as  a  pupil  will  accept  the  penal  consequences  of  his 
wrongdoing,  the  teacher  has  no  occasion  to  use  the 
rod.  This,  if  used  at  all,  is  for  the  insubordinate  and 
rebellious. 

It  is  believed  that  the  limit,  thus  found,  to  punish- 
ment by  consequence,  is  a  valuable  fact  in  school  disci- 

1  We  do  not  here  refer  to  the  practice  of  sending  pupils  home  with  a 
note,  requesting  the  parent  to  call  at  the  school  to  see  the  teacher  respect- 
ing his  child's  conduct,  — a  conditional  suspension.  This  may  sometimes 
put  parents  to  considerable  inconvenience,  but  this  is  more  than  offset  by 
the  good  results  attained.  If  the  parent  does  not  call  at  the  school  in  & 
reasonable  time,  the  teacher  should  call  on  the  parent. 
14 


210  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

pline.     It  is  not  only  a  limit  to  so-called  natural  penal- 
ties,  but,  what  is  very   important,  to  the  use  of  cor- 
importance  poral    punishment.       It    leaves    a   place   for 
of  Limit,    force,  but  makes  it  a  small  and  well-defined 
place,  and  thus  lessens  its  abuse. 

IMPROPER  PUNISHMENTS. 

There   are  several  kinds  of   punishment  which  are 
manifestly  improper.     The  first  are  blows  on  the  head, 
Blows  on    whether  with  the  hand  or  a  rod.     The  brain 
the  Head.    js  the  organ  of  the  mind,  and  the  head  con- 
tains the  brain,  the  same  being  protected  in  childhood 
by  a  very  thin  cranium  or  skull.      Moreover,  the  brain 
is  so  delicate  in  texture  that  a  slight  concussion  often 
results  in  injury,  and  sometimes  in  mental  impairment. 
"  I  have  no  doubt,"  says  Mann,  "  that  the  intellects  of 
thousands  of  children  have  been  impaired  for  life  by  the 
blows  which  some  angry  parent  or  teacher  has  inflicted 
upon  the  head."     Boxing  the  ears  is  only  a  little  less  dan- 
gerous than  blows  on  the  upper  part  of  the  head.     It  is 
the  testimony  of  physicians  that  the  hearing  of  many 
children  has  been  impaired  by  ear  boxing,  the  tympanum 
or  eardrum  being  thus  ruptured.     The  head  of  a  child 
should  be  held  too  sacred  for  blows.1     Corporal  punish- 
ment, when  inflicted,  should  be  with  a  rod  applied  below 
the  loins,  rather  than  upon  the  body  or  the  hands. 
It    ought  not  to  be  necessary  to  add  that   no  child 
violent     should   be   violently    shaken.     It   was    once 
shaking,    quite  common  for  male  teachers  to  make  a 
show  of  their  muscular  power  to  frighten  pupils,  by  seiz- 

1  A  man  may  survive  many  blows  that  "knock  him  senseless,"  but  his 
mental  activity  is  inevitably  impaired.  The  pugilist  usually  becomes  a 
stupid  fellow,  incapable  of  any  marked  mental  achievement. 


PUNISHMENT.  2 1 1 

ing  and  vigorously  shaking  an  unruly  boy  ;  and  the  writer 
has  seen  more  than  one  woman  shake  a  little  child  in  a 
frightful  manner.  The  nervous  shocks  thus  produced 
are  injurious,  and  the  shaking  of  a  child  with  its  face 
turned  away  is  very  dangerous. 

Improper  punishments  also  include  all  personal  indig- 
nities, such  as  pulling  the  hair,  twisting  the  ear,  etc. 
Such  inflictions  are  both  mischievous  and  useless.  A 
boy  has  not  much  manhood  in  him,  even  in  personai 
embryo,  that  can  endure  such  indignities  indignities, 
without  a  feeling  of  resentment.  The  teacher  who  goes 
about  a  schoolroom  pulling  hair,  snapping  ears,  fore- 
heads, etc.,  loses  not  only  the  respect  but  the  control  of 
his  pupils.  He  occasions  much  more  disorder  than  he 
checks.  It  is  unnecessary  to  name  other  old-time  indig- 
nities, now  happily  forgotten. 

All  degrading  punishments  are  improper.     It  is  true 
that  the  effect  of   punishment   depends  much  on  the 
conditions  of  the  punished.     A  punishment  that  would 
be  degrading  in  an  American  school  might    Degradin 
not  be  degrading  in  a  barbarous  society.    The     Punish- 
thing  condemned  is  the  infliction  of  a  pun-      ments- 
ishment    that    degrades    or   debases   a   child.      Such  a 
punishment  is  a  moral  injury.     It  tends  to  make  the 
character  pusillanimous,  and  the  pupil  insensible  to  dis- 
grace.    The  dunce  cap,  the  dunce  block,  the  gag,  etc., 
were  the  idiotic  follies  of  the  old-time  teachers. 

But  of  all  degrading  punishments  ever  used  in  school, 
none  are  more  culpable  than  the  assaulting  of  a  child 
with  opprobrious  epithets.     The  teacher  who  calls  a  dull 
child  a  dunce  or  a  blockhead  commits  a  crime  opprobrious 
which  ought  to  be  punished  by  dismissal, —    Epithets, 
only  a  natural  penalty  for  such  an  abuse  of  the  teacher's 


212  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

office.  There  are  teachers  who  pride  themselves  on  the 
fact  that  they  never  use  the  rod,  and  yet  who  pierce 
children's  souls  with  bitter  words,  more  cruel  and  more 
degrading  than  blows  on  the  body.  What  thoughtful 
parent  would  not  prefer  to  have  a  child  whipped  in 
school  rather  than  called  a  liar,  a  dolt,  a  sneak,  or  other 
like  degrading  epithet.  Some  one  has  said  that  striking 
a  child  in  anger  is  not  punishing,  but  fighting,  and  fight- 
ing a  child  at  that ;  but  the  thrusting  of  a  child  through 
with  bitter  words  is  worse  than  fighting  :  it  is  soul  mur- 
der,—  a  slaughter  of  reputation  and  manly  spirit.  The 
good  name  of  a  pupil  should  be  as  dear  to  the  teacher 
as  the  apple  of  his  eye. 

And  this  leads  to  the  observation  that  ridicule  and 

sarcasm   are  weapons   which  few  teachers   can  wisely 

use,  and,  when  used  by  even  the  wisest,  they  generally 

Ridicule  and  do  more  harm  than  good.     Ridicule  affects 

sarcasm.  not  only  the  pupil  ridiculed,  but  also  all  sen- 
sitive pupils  who  witness  it,  creating  such  fear  and 
timidity  as  become  a  hindrance  to  effort.  Few  sarcastic 
teachers  are  ever  loved  by  their  pupils.  The  fact  that 
they  seem  to  take  pleasure  in  causing  mortification  and 
pain  estranges  noble  natures,  and  they  are  usually  as 
much  disliked  as  they  are  feared.  There  may  be  rare 
instances  when  it  is  wise  to  take  the  conceit  out  of 
a  student  (not  a  child)  by  an  effective  touch  of  sarcasm 
or  ridicule ;  but,  even  in  such  a  case,  great  care  is  re- 
quired, lest  the  wound  be  not  worse  for  the  student 
than  the  conceit. 

It  is  not  meant  that  a  punishment  is  improper  because 

infliction  of  it  gives  pain.     There  can  be  no  punishment 

Pain.       without  pain  of  some  sort.     But  there  is  a 

distinction  between  the  infliction  of  useless  or  unneces- 


PUNISHMENT.  213 

sary  pain,  and  pain  that  prevents  a  greater  evil.  The 
purpose  of  all  natural  law  that  touches  man,  is  to  pro- 
mote his  happiness  and  well-being,  and  the  violation  of 
every  such  law  is  attended  with  pain  to  prevent  its 
repetition  and  consequent  greater  suffering. 

OTHER  MODES  OF  PUNISHMENT. 

There  are  various  modes  of  inflicting  punishment  in 
school  that  possess  one  or  more  of  the  three  character- 
istics above  described,  and  deserve  a  passing  notice. 
The  more  common  of  these  are  the  manifestation  of 
displeasure,  the  administering  of  reproof  or  rebuke  or 
admonition,  an  appeal  to  the  sense  of  shame,  the  mark- 
ing of  misconduct,  detention  from  play,  keeping  after 
school,  and  the  imposition  of  tasks. 

The  manifestation  of  displeasure  is  a  natural  reaction 
of  the  pupil's  misconduct,  and  its  effectiveness  will 
depend  largely  upon  the  degree  of  affection 

1     J  Displeasure. 

between  teacher  and  pupil.     The  displeasure 

of  an  enemy,  or  one  much  disliked,  has  little  effect,  but 

the  disapproval  of  a  friend  brings  grief. 

The  same  is  true  of  reproof  or  rebuke,  these  being, 
indeed,  but  an  expression  of  displeasure.  The  silent 
reproof  of  some  teachers  is  more  effective  than  the 
severest  censure  of  others.  The  severity  of  Reproof  or  ' 
reproof  or  rebuke  should  not  only  be  propor-  Rebuke, 
tionate  to  the  offense,  but  should  also  be  adapted  to 
the  nature  of  the  pupil.  There  are  natures  so  finely 
tempered  that  a  look  of  displeasure  is  more  painful 
and  effective  than  a  severe  reprimand  would  be  to  some 
other  pupil.  Sharp  reproof  or  the  manifestation  of 
anger  fills  such  a  sensitive  pupil  with  terror.  Strong 


214  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

terms  of  reproof  or  rebuke  should  be  used  very  sparingly, 
and  then  only  when  dealing  with  the  more  insensible 
pupils,  and  for  serious  offenses. 

The  appeal  to  a  pupil's  sense  of  shame  is  to  be  made 
privately,  not  before  the  school,  and  only  in  case  of 

sense  of     offenses  involving  moral  turpitude.     If  made 

shame.  m  correcting  light  offenses,  it  will  soon  lose 
power,  and  be  useless  when  it  may  really  be  needed. 
It  is  usually  far  better  to  appeal  to  a  pupil's  sense  of 
honor  than  to  his  sense  of  shame. 

The  practice  of  marking  the  deportment  of  pupils  on 
a  numerical  scale  and  making  the  same  a  part  of  their 
record,  is  quite  common,  especially  in  high  schools  and 

Marking  colleges.  The  best  practice  marks  misde- 
Deportment.  meanors  or  failures  in  duty  as  demerits,  no  at- 
tempt being  made  to  compare  the  virtue  or  moral  worth 
of  pupils,  —  an  attempt  already  considered  (p.  135). 
It  simply  notes  observed  or  known  offenses  or  short- 
comings, without  assuming  to  indicate  moral  worth,  and 
it  thus  acts  as  a  penal  restraint,  not  as  an  incentive. 

But  the  marking  of  demerits  is  manifestly  too  diffi- 
cult to  permit  their  use  as  a  part  of  a  pupil's  record,  — 
an  element  in  his  recorded  standing.  It  often  happens 

use  of      that  the  mischievous  pupil  is  sly  and  secre- 

Demerits.  ^{VQf  and  so  hides  his  misdemeanors  from  the 
recording  pencil.  Another  pupil,  much  more  deserving, 
is  frank  and  open,  and  his  mischiefs  are  in  the  teacher's 
eye.  The  recorded  demerits  of  these  two  pupils  may 
sadly  fail  to  represent  their  comparative  merits.  Con- 
duct escapes  the  per-cent  table. 

The  detention  of  pupils  from  play,  or  keeping  them 
after  school,  may  be  a  natural  and  proper  punishment 
for  certain  offenses,  but  it  should  never  be  used  when 


PUNISHMENT.  2 1 5 

the  fear  of  it  is  not  strong  enough  to  offset  the  desire! 
to  repeat  the  offense.     The  detention  of  a  pupil,  say,' 
ten  minutes,  for  an  hour's  unnecessary  delay    Detention 
in  reaching  the  school,  and  the  requiring  of  after  school, 
pupils  to  remain  and  study  ten  minutes  after  school  as 
a  penalty  for  a  half  day's  idleness,  are  examples  of  in- 
sufficient punishment.     It  is  better  to  inflict  no  punish- 
ment than  to  impose  such  inadequate  penalties. 

The  keeping  of  pupils  after  school  "to  make  up 
lessons  "  largely  loses  its  efficiency  as  soon  as  it  becomes 
a  practice.  We  have  never  seen  a  teacher  with  half  a 
score  or  more  of  pupils  "making  up"  unpre-  "Making up 
pared  lessons  after  school,  without  discount-  Lessons." 
ing  his  wisdom  and  tact.  Such  a  requirement  is  most 
effective  when  it  is  exceptional.  We  make  no  reference 
here  to  pupils  remaining  after  school  to  receive  needed 
assistance  in  any  study.  The  sanitary  conditions  ofv  a 
schoolroom  after  closing  for  the  day  are  usually  such  as 
forbid  either  teacher  or  pupils  remaining  in  it.  The 
health  of  many  teachers  has  thus  been  impaired.  It 
is  better  to  give  such  needed  assistance  before  school, 
if  this  cannot  be  done  in  school  hours. 

Few  devices  for  the  punishment  of  pupils  are  more 
easily  or  more  widely  abused  than  the  imposition  of 
tasks.  The  most  objectionable  of  these 

•  •  riii  Tasks. 

abuses  is  the  assigning  of  school  tasks,  as 
writing  words  or  sentences,  solving  problems,   memo-' 
rizing  verses,  etc.,  as  a  penalty  for  idleness,  whisper- 
ing,   inattention,    tardiness,    etc.,  —  a   practice    already 
condemned  (p.   144).     By  a  law  of  the  mind,  the  pun- 
ishment is  associated,  not  with  the  offense  (as  it  should 
always  be),  but  with  the  task  or  study,  thus  increasing 
the  pupil's  dislike  for  it.     No  school  duty  should  ever 


2l6  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

be  assigned  as  a  penalty  for  misconduct.  A  pupil  may 
be  wisely  required  to  make  up  a  lesson  as  a  necessary 
condition  of  future  progress,  and  such  a  task  may  be  im- 
posed in  case  of  culpable  neglect  of  study,  and  idleness. 
The  principle  to  be  carefully  observed  is  that  pain  and 
loss  should  always  be  associated  with  the  wrong  done, 
and  not  with  duty.1  Blessings  should  be  linked  with 
virtuous  conduct,  and  evil  with  wrongdoing,  as  Siamese 
twins.  It  is  a  serious  matter  when  a  pupil  associates 
unhappiness  with  school,  or  suffering  with  any  school 
duty. 

1  Horace  Mann's  Lectures  and  Reports,  p.  364. 


PUNISHMENJ. 


217 


2l8  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


MORAL    INSTRUCTION. 

IT  has   been   shown   that   the   discipline   of    a  good 

school    affords    a   valuable   moral    training,  this    being 

Moral  Eie-   specially  true   when   desired  results   are   se- 

mentsinthe  cured    by    an    appeal    to    high    and    worthy 

school,  motives,  and  by  conscientious  training  in 
the  cardinal  virtues  of  truthfulness,  kindness,  and  jus- 
tice. Special  emphasis  has  also  been  given  to  the 
teacher's  personal  influence,  and  also  to  the  moral  im- 
pulse afforded  by  school  life. 

It  is  also  freely  conceded  that  all  good  teaching  has  a 
potent  moral  element ;  and  this  explains  the  well-known 
fact  that  improvements  in  methods  of  teaching  have 
been  attended  by  an  increase  in  the  moral  efficiency  of 
school  training. 

It  is  also  true  that  the  several  branches  of  study 
taught  in  school  have  a  valuable  moral  element,  this 

Branches    being  especially  true  of   literature,  history, 

of  study,  natural  science,  and  music.  The  moral  in- 
fluence of  the  school  reader  has  always  been  marked. 
Few  adults  are  unconscious  of  the  salutary  influence 
exerted  upon  them  by  certain  literary  selections  read  in 
school,  this  being  specially  true  of  selections  committed 
to  memory.  The  same  is  true  of  the  influence  of  all 
good  literature,  and  especially  of  that  which  presents 
attractively  moral  truth  and  inspiring  moral  ideals. 
History  and  biography  pulsate  with  ethical  influence. 

It  is  not  easy  to  overestimate  the  ethical  value  of  an 
early  study  of  nature,  especially  of  an  early  intimacy 
with  animals  and  plants.  The  common  animals  and 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION.  2ig 

flowers  illustrate  nearly  every  human  virtue,  —  as  indus- 
try, foresight,  fidelity,  gentleness,  modesty,  courage,  etc., 
—  and  literature  abounds  in  ethical  references     Study  of 
to  them.     What  a  moral  charm  animal  and     Natura. 
plant  life  gives  to  poetry  and  fiction,  to  allegory  and 
fable !     The  beautiful  in  nature  is  not  only  an  aesthetic 
gratification,  but  a  winning  invitation  to  the  beautiful 
in  deed  and  life. 

It  is  only  necessary  to  refer  to  the  ethical  value  of 
music    as    a   school   exercise.      It  not  only  calms  and 
soothes,  but  it  inspires  hope,  courage,  pur-      Mug.c 
pose.     How  often  has  a  strain  from  some 
familiar  ballad  breathed  into  the  soul   a  moral  tonic ! 
History  is  full   of   examples    of   the  ethical   effect   of 
music,   and   personal   experience  attests   its  power   to 
stir  the  sensibility  and  move  the  heart. 

But  are  all  these  ethical  influences  of  school  life, 
even  at  their  best,  sufficient  ?  Do  they  fully  meet  the 
obligation  of  the  school  to  provide  effective  Aiiinsuffi- 
moral  training  ?  It  must  be  remembered,  in  cient- 
answering  these  questions,  that  character  is  the  most 
vital  issue  of  the  school,  and  that  there  is  most  imper- 
ative need  of  its  efficient  training.  Nothing  that  will 
contribute  to  this  result  can  be  wisely  omitted  ;  for 
when  the  school  has  done  all  that  it  can  do,  the  forces 
that  work  for  evil  in  child  life  will  sadly  lessen  its 
moral  efficiency. 

This  brings  us  face  to  face  with  the  mooted  question 
of  moral  instruction  as  an  element  of  school  training. 
Is  there  a  place  for  such  instruction  in  ele-      Morai 
mentary  schools,  and,  if  so,  what  should  be  instruction, 
its  nature  and  method  ?     This   question  is   practically 
narrowed  by  the  very  general  admission  that  there  is  a 


220  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

place  for  incidental  and  informal  instruction  in  duty. 
School  life  affords  many  opportunities  for  such  instruc- 
tion, but  their  fruitful  improvement  depends  largely 
upon  the  personal  interest,  zeal,  and  tact  of  the  teacher. 

We  have  recently  seen  the  recommendation  that 
teachers  should  use  the  conduct  of  pupils  as  occasions 

Personal     f°r  sucn  instruction,  and  that  it  may  thus  be 

incidents,  brought  "  home  to  the  conscience."  It  may 
be  possible  to  turn  the  experiences  of  the  school  to 
good  account  in  enforcing  moral  truth,  but  there  is 
danger  of  doing  more  harm  than  good.  There  are  per- 
sonal elements  that  enter  into  the  present  example, 
whether  good  or  bad,  and  these  may  weaken  if  not  blur 
the  truth.  But  incidental  instruction  need  not  be  per- 
sonal. It  may  present  duty  in  a  most  impressive  man- 
ner, and  may  be  made  an  important  factor  in  character 
training.  This  is  true  in  all  schools  blessed  with  con- 
scientious teachers,  who  realize  their  opportunities  to 
touch  the  heart  and  life  of  their  pupils. 

If  instruction  be  a  valuable  element  in  moral  training, 
it  would  seem  to  follow  that  it  should  not  be  crowded 

Moral  into  a  corner>  anc*  given  the  "odds  and  ends" 
Lessons  in  of  school  time.  It  should  have  an  assigned 
Programme.  pjace  m  ^he  weekly  programme,  and  thus 
receive  its  due  share  of  attention.  It  is  not  meant 
that  all  moral  instruction  should  thus  be  regulated,  but 
that  incidental  instruction  should  be  supplemented  by 
instruction  of  a  more  progressive  and  systematic  char- 
acter. It  is  not  a  question  of  choice  between  incidental 
and  regular  instruction,  but  each  should  be  faithfully 
used,  the  one  supplementing  the  other.  The  pupils 
need  both  and  each  in  full  measure.  A  glance  at  the 
virtues  and  duties  outlined  below  (p.  232)  will  suffice 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION.  221 

to  show  that  the  instruction  therein  may  be  made  an 
integral  part  of  the  course  of  study.  It  is  true  that 
some  of  these  lessons  can  be  best  given  incidentally, 
"  here  a  little,  and  there  a  little,"  but  the  series  affords 
abundant  material  for  regular  instruction. 

It  seems  important  to  notice  here,  in  passing,  an  ob- 
jection sometimes  made  to  all  moral  instruction  in  school* 
more  especially  to  that  of  a  didactic  or  posi- 

J  Objection. 

tive  character.  The  objection  rests  on  the 
assumption,  sometimes  expressed,  that  moral  truth  is 
repugnant  to  the  young,  and  hence  that  it  must  be  so 
sugar-coated  that  it  can  be  swallowed  without  being 
tasted.  A  recent  writer  goes  so  far  as  to  assert  that  all 
positive  ethical  instruction  is  not  only  useless,  but  even 
harmful,  and  that  this  is  especially  true  in  elementary 
schools.  It  must  suffice  to  say  here  that  there  is  noth- 
ing in  the  writer's  observation  or  experience  that  justi- 
fies such  an  assertion  ;  and  his  experience  touches  all 
grades  of  schools,  from  the  primary  school  to  the  univer- 
sity. He  has  ever  found  a  ready  ear  and  a  quick  re- 
sponse when  he  has  presented  moral  truth  to  the  young. 
It  should,  perhaps,  be  added,  that  he  has  never  person- 
ally tested  the  effect  of  long,  pointless,  and  tedious 
harangues  on  duty  ;  but  his  observation  warrants  the 
statement,  that,  when  a  lesson  on  duty  fails  to  interest 
the  young,  there  is  some  weakness  either  in  the  lesson 
or  in  its  presentation.  The  fault  is  not  the  pupils'  re- 
pugnance to  moral  truth. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

The  practical  importance  of  moral  instruction  being 
conceded,  the  next  question  relates  to  its  nature  and 
method.  What  is  here  imperatively  needed  is  the 


222  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

basing  of  such  instruction  on  sound  pedagogical  prin- 
ciples. The  teacher  needs  as  clear  a  grasp  of  the 

Guiding  principles  and  facts  which  underlie  instruc- 
Principies.  tion  in  duty  as  of  those  that  guide  in  the 
teaching  of  any  other  branch  of  knowledge ;  and,  what 
is  quite  as  important,  he  needs  to  be  as  confident  of 
reaching  desired  results.  These  guiding  principles  and 
facts  relate  (i)  to  the  ends  to  be  attained,  (2)  the 
principles  which  guide  in  their  attainment,  (3)  the  ma- 
terials to  be  used,  and  (4)  the  method  and  spirit  of 
the  instruction. 

Our  inquiry  respecting  these  principles  needs  to  pro- 
ceed in  the  light  of  certain  psychical  facts  of  funda- 

Psychicai  mental  importance.  It  has  been  shown  that 
Facts.  the  ultimate  end  of  all  moral  discipline,  includ- 
ing instruction,  is  the  training  of  the  will  to  act  habit- 
ually from  high  and  worthy  motives  (p.  109).  But  the 
will  can  be  reached  only  through  motives  or  feelings, 
and  these  motive  feelings  can  be  awakened  only  by 
intellectual  conceptions  or  knowledge  adapted  to  awaken 
them. 

The  psychical  facts  necessarily  involved  may  thus  be 
stated :- 

1.  Knowledge  awakens  feeling. 

2.  The  feelings  solicit  the  will. 

3.  The  will  determines  conduct. 

In  other  words,  conduct  is  determined  by  the  will, 
the  will  is  solicited  by  the  feelings,  the  feelings  are 
awakened  by  appropriate  knowledge,  and  this  awaken- 
ing knowledge  may  be  developed  in  the  mind  by  the 
process  called  instruction.  The  necessary  order  of 
these  facts  is  (i)  instruction,  resulting  in  (2)  knowledge, 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION.  22$ 

(3)  feelingt   (4)  choice  and  volition,   and   (5)   action,— 
conduct. 

These  psychical  facts  not  only  show  that  instruction 
is  an  important  means  in  the  training  of  the  will  to 
virtuous  action,  but  they  also  indicate  the  nature  and 
purpose  of  such  instruction. 

I.  Ends. 

The  ends  or  purposes  to  be  attained  by  moral  instruc- 
tion include  the  following  :  — 

1.  To  awaken  right  feelings. 

2.  To  quicken  the  conscience,  —  to  train  the  moral  sense. 

3.  To  develop  clear  moral  ideas,  —  to  train  the  moral 
judgment. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  emphasize,  much  less  to 
show,  the  importance  of  these  three  results  as  ends  of 
moral  instruction.  The  relation  of  right  feelings  and  the 
promptings  of  conscience  to  right  conduct  are  obvious, 
and  it  is  equally  evident  that  both  feeling  and  conscience 
need  the  guidance  of  clear  ideas  of  right  and  duty. 
Moreover,  the  sensibility,  the  conscience,  and  the  moral 
judgment  are  all  developed  by  their  appropriate  activity, 
this  being  the  law  that  rules  in  the  training  of  all  the 
psychical  powers.  Every  act  of  the  soul  leaves  as  its 
enduring  result  an  increased  power  to  act,  and  a  ten- 
dency to  act  again  in  like  manner.  Increased  power  and 
tendency  are  the  resultants  of  all  psychcial  activity. 
What  is  needed  is  the  right  activity  of  the  feelings,  the 
conscience,  and  the  moral  judgment.  How  can  this 
activity  be  secured?  What  are  the  principles  which 
must  guide  the  teacher  in  the  attainment  of  the  above 
eMs.? 


224  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

II.  Principles. 
These  guiding  principles  include  the  following:  — 

I.  The  feelings  are  awakened,  the  conscience  quickened, 
and  the  moral  judgment  best  trained,  by  means  of  concrete 
examples. 

"Nothing,"  says  John  Locke,  "sinks  so  gently  and 
so  deep  into  men's  minds  as  examples ; "  and  this  is  par- 
Right  ticularly  true  in  childhood.  Right  feelings 

Feelings.  are  awakened  by  presenting  appropriate  ex- 
amples as  excitants  to  the  mind.  The  feelings  are  not 
subject  to  orders.  They  do  not  come  or  go  at  one's  bid- 
ding, and  they  are  not  responsive  to  abstract  statements 
of  duty.  They  are  occasioned  by  the  presence  of  some 
mental  conception  or  image  adapted  to  awaken  them, 
and  these  occasions  may  be  the  actual  seeing  of  the 
exciting  object  or  its  apprehension  when  presented  to 
the  mind  by  means  of  language  or  illustration. 

The  moral  judgment  is  also  best  trained  by  compar- 
ing the  ethical  qualities  of  actions  presented  concretely, 

Moral  just  as  the  power  to  discriminate  colors  is 
judgment,  developed  by  observing  colored  objects.  A 
theoretical  knowledge  of  duty  may  be  gained  by  the 
study  of  ethics  as  a  science ;  but  the  wise  application  of 
such  knowledge  in  one's  own  conduct  requires  moral 
judgment,  —  the  power  to  discern  duty  under  particular 
and  often  unique  conditions  and  circumstances.  Acute 
moral  discernment  and  a  quick  conscience  are  more 
important  in  youth  than  abstract  ethical  knowledge. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  law  of  intellectual  training  in 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION.  22$ 

childhood  —  "the    concrete   before   the   abstract"  —  is 
also  the  primary  law  of  moral  instruction.     The  prin- 
ciple that  all  primary  ideas  must  be  taught  objectively 
is  no  truer  in  teaching  natural  science  than    TheLaw 
in    teaching    duty.       The    primary    facts    of     of  Moral 
science  may  be  early  acquired  by  observa-  Instruction- 
tion,  but  science  proper  must  be  deferred  until  a  later 
period  in  the  child's  mental  development,  —  the  so-called 
scientific  phase.     The  same  is  true  in  moral  instruction. 
The  feelings,  the  conscience,  and  the  moral  judgment 
are  not  only  best  reached  by  concrete  examples  of  con- 
duct, but  clear  moral  ideas  are  thus  taught.     The  sci- 
ence of  ethics  belongs  to  the  higher  grades  of  school,  — 
the  high  school  and  the  college. 

"  Truth  embodied  in  a  tale 
Shall  enter  in  at  lowly  doors." 

2.    The  effectiveness  of  examples  of  right  conduct  is 
increased  by  their  beautiful  expression. 

The  aesthetic  emotions  support  and  strengthen  the 
ethical  feelings.     It  is  this  fact  that  gives  the  classic 
story  or  legend  the  advantage  over  the  com-    ^Esthetic 
monplace  incident,  and  it  also  explains  the    Emotions, 
charm  of  the  nursery  rhyme  not  only  to  infants,  but  to 
children  of  larger  growth. 

Universal   experience   attests  that  noble  sentiments 
expressed  in  poetic  form  or  embodied  in  song  have  an 
enhanced  power  over  human  hearts.     "  I  hold  in  mem- 
ory," says  President  Eliot  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, "  bits  of  poetry,  learned  in  childhood, 
which  have  stood  by  me  through  life  in  the  struggle  to 
keep  true  to  just  ideals  of  love  and  duty."     The  same 
truth  is  expressed  by  George  Herbert  in  the  line, — 
"  A  verse  may  find  him  who  a  sermon  flies." 


226  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

It  is,  indeed,  the  special  function  of  both  poetry  and 
art,  especially  music,  to  arouse  and  ennoble  the  feel- 
Literature    *ngs'     Hence   literature    (including   history) 
and  music  furnish  the  most  effective  means 
for  moral  training,  and  this  is  specially  true  in  child- 
hood.    Its  examples  of  moral  heroism  have  stirred  the 
deepest  impulses  of  human  nature,  and  exerted  a  wide 
and  salutary  influence  on  the  moral  life  of  the  race. 

3.  Rules  of  conduct  are  best  presented  to  children  in 
the  form  of  maxims  or  proverbs. 

It  is  not  sufficient  that  instruction  awaken  and  enno. 

ble  right  feelings.     Feeling  needs  to  be  lifted  to  the 

plane  of  principle,  —  to  the  domain  of  con^ 

Maxims.  .  t 

science  and  the  moral  judgment.  But  ab- 
stract principle  is  too  exclusively  intellectual  to  make 
an  effective  appeal  to  the  will,  and  this  is  especially  true 
when  passion,  or  prejudice,  or  self-interest,  is  arrayed 
against  it.  What  is  needed  is  the  union  of  feeling  and 
principle;  and,  when  these  make  their  joint  appeal  to 
the  will,  the  assurance  of  right  conduct  is  greatly 
strengthened.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  maxims  and 
proverbs  have  exerted  so  wide  an  influence  upon  the 
conduct  of  men.  No  argument  can  successfully  meet 
the  convincing  power  of  a  familiar  maxim,  embodying 
the  moral  judgment  of  the  wise  and  the  good. 

///.  Materials. 

The  above  principles  indicate  that  the  materials  for 
effective  moral  instruction  are  found  largely  in  litera- 
ture, including  history  and  the  ballad.  These  materials 
include  the  following :  — 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION.  22/ 

1.  Stories,  fables,  parables,  fairy  tales,  legends,  allego- 
ries, biographies,  etc. 

2.  Literary  gems  (poetry  and  prose),  songs,  pictures, 
etc. 

3.  Maxims  and  proverbs,  — golden  rules  of  duty. 

Literature  abounds  in  this  ethical  material,  and  what 
is  needed  is  its  wise  selection  and  impressive  presenta- 
tion   in    school    instruction.     It    is    example      where 
told  in  story,  ennobled  in  poetry  and  song,       found, 
and  crystallized  in  maxim,  that  has  been  largely  the 
inspirer  of  human  endeavor  and  the  moral    uplift   in 
human  life. 

How  strikingly  is  the  effectiveness  of  such  instruc- 
tion illustrated  in  the  Bible,  —  the  greatest  ethical  as 
well  as  religious  influence  among  men.  Here 

The  Bible. 

we  have  story  and  parable,  poetry  and  song 
and  proverb,  all  uniting  in  a  holy  appeal  to  the  heart  and 
conscience.     History  has  been  characterized  as  "  God 
teaching  by  example,"  and  this  is  specially  true  of  what 
is  called  sacred  history. 

We  desire  to  call  special  attention  to  the  fairy  tale, 
which  is  included  in  the  above  list  of  ethical  material,  and 
for  the  reason  that  we  hesitate  to  recommend 
unqualifiedly  its  use  as  an  element  of  moral 
instruction.  The  fascination  of  the  fairy  tale  in  child- 
hood is  conceded ;  but  we  can  but  question  the  moral 
influence  of  those  myths  that  present  powers  of  evil  in 
the  form  of  elfs,  imps,  hobgoblins,  etc.  No  thought- 
ful parent  would  thank  a  teacher,  whether  in  the 
kindergarten  or  the  elementary  school,  for  filling  the 
imagination  of  his  little  ones  with  these  evil  sprites, 
lurking  in  the  darkness.  To  a  child  the  darkness  and 


228  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

the  light  should  be  equally  free  from  terror.  The  theory 
that  every  child  must  go  through  with  the  experience 
of  the  race  is  more  attractive  than  true.  Birth  into  an 
enlightened  Christian  home  ought  to  protect  a  child 
from  some  of  the  experiences  of  pagan  life. 

But  there  are  fairy  tales  that  represent  supernatural 
beings  as  ministers  of  good,  not  evil ;  and  these  may 
have  an  important  place  in  the  ethical  training  of  the 
young.  Some  of  these  tales  lend  an  exquisite  charm  to 
virtue.  No  kind  of  literature  needs  more  careful  sift- 
ing than  myths  and  fairy  tales,  and  no  literature  will 
better  pay  for  the  sifting.  It  may  be  added  that  all 
material  for  moral  instruction  should  be  selected  with 
care. 

IV.   Method  and  Spirit. 

The  method  of  using  the  above  material  in   moral 

instruction  has  been  indicated  in  the  statement  of  the 

Natural      ends  to  be  reached   and  the  guiding  princi- 

order.      ciples  to  be  observed.     The  natural  order  of 

the  steps  to  be  taken  seems  to  be  as  follows  :  — 

1.  The  narration  of  the  example  to  awaken  right  feel- 
ing, quicken  the  conscience,  etc. 

2.  The  presentation  of  the  literary  gem  to  ennoble  feel- 
ing, and  change  it  to  sentiment. 

3.  The  giving  of  an  appropriate  maxim  or  proverb  to 
lift  feeling  and  sentiment  to  the  plane  of  principle. 

It  is  not  meant  that  all  of  these  steps  are  necessa- 
rily to  be  taken  at  every  lesson,  or  that  they  must  be 
order  taken  invariably  in  the  above  order.  There 

variable.  is  no  such  mechanism  in  vital  moral  instruc- 
tion. The  essential  thing  is  to  reach  the  desired  end, 
and  the  mode  of  doing  this  will  necessarily  vary  with 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION.  22<) 

conditions  and  circumstances.  The  maxim  or  rule  of 
conduct  need  not  always  wait  upon  story  or  poetic 
selection.  The  order  of  the  steps,  as  above  given,  may, 
however,  be  suggestive  and  helpful.  It  will  often  be 
found  the  best  possible  procedure. 

The  presentation  of  the  concrete  example  may  be 
properly  followed  with  a  few  bright  questions  to  lead 
pupils  to  discern  its  moral  elements,  and  also 

....  .  .  Questions. 

to  discriminate  between  what  is  praiseworthy 
and  the  opposite,  thus  training  the  moral  judgment. 
Questions  which  relate  to  the  mere  mechanism  of  a 
story  may  weaken,  if  not  blur,  its  moral  effect ;  while 
the  formal  attempt  to  apply  its  truth  to  some  particular 
pupil,  or  to  some  tendency  in  the  school,  may  wholly 
subvert  its  purpose.  A  good  example  carries  on  its 
face  its  lesson  and  appeal,  and  its  formal  application  is 
usually  a  waste  of  time. 

It  is  not  claimed  that  moral  instruction,  even  in  ele- 
mentary schools,  should  be  limited  to  the  use  of  the 
materials  or  to  the  method  above  described.  The 
teacher  may  often  wisely  tell  a  child  what  is  Didactic 
right  or  wrong  in  conduct,  and  the  way  of  instruction, 
duty  may  be  pointed  out  directly.  There  is  not  only 
opportunity,  but  necessity,  for  much  instruction  of  this 
direct  and  positive  character  in  school,  as  well  as  in  the 
home.  What  is  urged  is,  that  such  instruction  should 
be  supplemented  by  greatly  needed  instruction  by  ex- 
ample, —  the  presentation  of  duty  concretely. 

No  attempt  should  be  made  in  elementary  schools  to 
teach  the  science  of  ethics.      This  belongs    Ethics  as  a 
to  the  scientific  phase  of  school  education  ;      science, 
and,  when  this  is  reached,  no  abstract  truth  is  more  in- 
teresting or  valuable  to  the  student  than  that  which 
constitutes  the  science  of  duty. 


23O  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

It  remains  to  be  added,  that  instruction  in  duty, 
whether  incidental  or  regular,  must  come  from  the 
heart  of  the  teacher.  More  depends  upon  the  spirit  of 
the  lesson  than  upon  its  formal  method.  "  Moral 
From  the  instruction,"  says  Compayre",  "must  touch 
Heart.  the  soul  to  the  quick."  To  this  end,  the 
teacher  must  believe  and  feel  the  truth  which  he 
teaches,  and  his  instruction  must  glow  with  enthusiasm. 
If  a  teacher  has  little  faith  in  a  moral  truth,  or  is  indif- 
ferent to  it,  the  less  he  says  about  it  the  better.  A 
child  quickly  detects  perfunctory  moralizing,  and,  when 
a  teacher  asserts  that  the  young  are  repugnant  to  moral 
and  religious  instruction,  we  half  suspect  that  he  is 
speaking  from  the  standpoint  of  his  own  experience. 

Moreover,  back  of  all  effective  instruction  in  duty 
there  must  be  a  true  life.  "  Words  have  weight," 
says  a  writer,  "when  there  is  a  man  back  of  them." 
The  one  vital  condition  of  effective  moral  instruction  is 
Teacher's  character  in  the  teacher.  Truth  translated 
Example.  mto  human  experience  not  only  wins  intellec- 
tual assent,  but  it  touches  the  heart.  Noble  sentiments 
have  their  most  potent  moral  influence  when  they  dwell 
regally  in  the  teacher's  life.  If  he  would  banish  false- 
hood and  kindred  vices  from  his  pupils'  hearts,  he  must 
first  exorcise  them  from  his  own.  If  he  would  make 
them  truthful,  gentle,  kind,  and  just,  his  own  life  must 
daily  exhibit  these  virtues  (p.  44). 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION. 


COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

There  is  given  below  the  outlines  of  an  elementary 
course  of  instruction  in  morals  and  manners.  It  is 
seen  that  the  lessons  are  chiefly  devoted  to 

The  Virtues. 

virtuous  conduct,  but  three  of  the  thirty-two 
series  treating  directly  of  wrongdoing,  and  these  of  evil 
habits  to  be  shunned.  Formal  lessons  on  vice  have  a 
small  place  in  the  moral  training  of  a  child.  "  The  only 
way,"  says  Madame  Guizot,  "to  extirpate  a  vice  from 
the  heart  of  a  child,  is  to  cause  a  virtue  to  grow  in  its 
place."  To  this  end,  virtue  must  be  made  attractive, 
and  kept  before  the  mind  as  an  inspiring  ideal.  A 
great  gain  is  made  when  a  child  has  learned  to  love 
what  is  noble,  true,  and  good  in  human  life.  Wrong- 
doing should  be  presented  incidentally,  and  usually  in 
contrast  with  the  right. 

No  attempt   has    been   made  to  grade   the   lessons. 
This   would    involve    many   repetitions,   since    most    of 
the  virtues  and  duties  included  in  the  course  Lessons  not 
must  be  taught  in  the  several  grades,  the  dif-     graded. 
ference  being  in   treatment.      The  stories,  gems,  etc., 
used  in  the  lower  grades  are  simpler  and  usually  briefer 
than  in  the  higher.     There  is,  however,  a  general  prog- 
ress in  the  course,  those  intended  for  all  grades  coming 
early,  and   those    more    specially  designed   for    higher 
grades  coming  later. 

Nor  has  it  seemed  desirable  to  group  the  lessons  on 
the  basis  of  like  subject-matter,  as  in  a  scientific  classi- 
fication. The  outlines  are  not  intended  to  be  an  analy- 
sis of  the  science  of  ethics.  It  has  seemed  better  to 
present  a  somewhat  comprehensive  outline  of  needed 
instruction,  leaving  the  selection  and  order  of  the  les- 
sons to  teachers. 


232  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


Outlines  of  Lessons  in  Morals  and  Manners. 

N.B. —  Each  of  the  sub-topics  below  is  designed  for  one  or 
more  lessons.  The  teacher  may  select  those  which  he  can  present 
most  successfully. 

1.  CLEANLINESS  AND  NEATNESS. 

1.  Body,  hands,  face,  hair,  nails,  etc. 

2.  Clothing,  shoes,  etc. 

3.  Books,  slates,  desk,  etc. 

4.  Everything  used  or  done. 

2.  POLITENESS  (Children}. 

1.  At  school. 

2.  At  home. 

3.  At  the  table. 

4.  To  guests  or  visitors. 

5.  On  the  street. 

6.  In  company. 

3.  GENTLENESS. 

1.  In  speech. 

2.  In  manner. 

3.  Rude  and  boisterous  conduct  to  be  avoided. 

4.  Patience,  when  misjudged. 

5.  Docility,  when  instructed. 

4.  KINDNESS  TO  OTHERS. 

1.  To  parents. 

2.  To  brothers  and  sisters. 

3.  To  other  members  of  the  family,  and  friends. 

4.  To  the  aged  and  infirm. 

5.  To  the  unfortunate. 

6.  To  the  helpless  and  needy. 

7.  The  Golden  Rule. 

Forms.  —  (i)  Sympathy;  (2)  deference  and  consideration; 
(3)  helpfulness ;  (4)  charity ;  (5)  no  cruelty  or  injustice. 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION.  233 

5.  KINDNESS  TO  ANIMALS. 

1.  To  those  that  serve  us. 

2.  To  those  that  do  not  harm  us,  —  the  killing  of  birds. 

3.  The  killing  of  those  that  do  us  harm. 

4.  The  killing  of  animals  for  food. 

5.  Cruelty  to  any  animal  wrong. 

6.  LOVE. 

1 .  For  parents. 

2.  For  brothers  and  sisters.    . 

3.  For  other  members  of  family,  and  friends. 

4.  For  teachers,  and  all  benefactors. 

5.  For  one's  neighbor,  —  "  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as 

thyself." 

6.  For  God. 

7.  TRUTHFULNESS. 

1.  In  words  and  actions,  —  "  Without  truth  there  can  be  no 

other  virtue." 

2.  Keeping  one's  word,  —  promises  to  do  wrong. 

3.  Distinction  between  a  lie  and  an  untruth. 

4.  Telling  what  one  does  not  know  to  be  true. 

5.  Prevarication  and  exaggeration. 

6.  The  giving  of  a  wrong  impression,  a  form  of  falsehood. 

7.  Telling  falsehoods  for  fun. 

8.  FIDELITY  IN  DUTY. 

i .  To  parents,  —  to  assist,  comfort,  etc. 

z.  To  brothers  and  sisters,  —  older  to  assist,  etc.,  younger. 

3.  To  the  poor  and  unfortunate. 

4.  To  the  wronged  and  oppressed. 

5.  Duty  to  God. 

9.  OBEDIENCE. 

1.  To  parents. 

2.  To  teachers  and  others  in  authority. 

3.  To  law. 

4.  To  conscience. 

5.  To  God. 

Nature.  —  (i)  Prompt;  (2)  cheerful;  (3)  implicit;  (4)  faithful. 


234  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

10.  NOBILITY. 

1.  Manliness. 

2.  Magnanimity  and  generosity. 

3.  Self-denial  and  self-sacrifice  for  others. 

4.  Bravery  in  helping  or  saving  others. 

5.  Confession  of  injury  done  another, 
u.  RESPECT  AND  REVERENCE. 

1.  For  parents. 

2.  For  teachers. 

3.  For  the  aged. 

4.  For  those  who  have  done  distinguished  service. 

5.  For  those  in  civil  authority. 

12.  GRATITUDE  AND  THANKFULNESS. 

1.  To  parents. 

2.  To  all  benefactors. 

3.  To  God,  the  giver  of  all  good. 
{3.  FORGIVENESS. 

1.  Of  those  who  confess  their  fault. 

2.  Of  those  who  have  wronged  us. 

3.  Of  our  enemies. 

4.  Generosity  in  dealing  with  the  faults  of  others. 

14.  CONFESSION. 

1.  Of  wrong  done  another,  manly  and  noble. 

2.  Denial  of  faults,  —  "  The  denial  of  a  fault  doubles  it.' 

3.  Frankness  and  candor. 

15.  HONESTY. 

1.  In  keeping  one's  word. 

2.  In  school  and  out  of  school. 

3.  In  little  things. 

4.  Cheating,  ignoble  and  base. 

5.  "  Honesty  is  the  best  policy." 

6.  Honesty  is  right. 

16.  HONOR. 

1.  To  honor  one's  self;  i.e.,  to  be  worthy  of  honor. 

2.  To  honor  one's  family. 

3.  To  honor  one's  friends. 

4.  To  honor  one's  home. 

5.  To  honor  one's  country. 


MORAL  INSTRUCTION.  235 

17.  COURAGE. 

1.  True  courage,  —  daring  to  do  right  and  to  defend  the 

right. 

2.  False,  —  daring  to  do  or  to  defend  the  wrong. 

3.  In  bearing  unjust  censure  or  unpopularity. 

4.  In  danger  or  misfortune. 

5.  Heroism. 

1 8.  HUMILITY. 

1.  True  greatness,  — not  blind  to  one's  own  faults. 

2.  Modesty  becoming  to  the  young. 

3.  Avoidance  of  pride  and  vanity. 

4.  Self-conceit,  a  sign  of  self-deception. 

5.  True  humility,  not  servility  or  time-serving. 

19.  SELF-RESPECT. 

1.  Not  self-conceit,  —  based  on  conscious  moral  worth. 

2.  Not  self-admiration. 

3.  Resulting  in  personal  dignity. 

4.  Distinction  between  self-love  and  selfishness. 

5.  "  Be  not  wise  in  your  own  conceit." 

20.  SELF-CONTROL. 

1.  Control  of  temper. 

2.  Anger,  when  right. 

3.  Avoidance  of  hasty  words,  —  "  Think  twice  before  you 

speak." 

4.  Self-restraint  when  tempted. 

5.  Self-restraint  under  provocation,  —  "  Bear  and  forbear." 

6.  Rule  your  own  spirit. 

21.  PRUDENCE. 

1.  In  speech  and  action. 

2.  When  one  may  be  misunderstood. 

3.  Respect  for  the  opinions  of  others. 

4.  "  Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged." 

22.  GOOD  NAME. 

1.  Gaining  a  good  name  when  young. 

2.  Keeping  a  good  name. 

3.  Keeping  good  company. 

4.  Reputation  and  character. 


236  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

23.  GOOD  MANNERS  (Youth}. 

1 .  At  home. 

2.  In  school. 

3.  In  company. 

4.  When  a  visitor  or  a  guest. 

5.  In  public  assemblies. 

6.  Salutations  on  the  street. 

7.  Politeness  to  strangers. 

8.  Trifling  in  serious  matters,  to  be  avoided. 

24.  HEALTH. 

1.  Duty  to  preserve  health. 

2.  Habits  that  impair  health,  foolish  as  well  as  sinful. 

3.  The  sowing  of  "  wild  oats,"  —  "  What  a  man  sows,  that 

shall  he  also  reap." 

4.  The  body  never  forgets  or  forgives  its  abuse. 

5.  An  observance  of  the  laws  of  health,  a  duty. 

25.  TEMPERANCE. 

1.  Moderation  in  the  indulgence  of  appetite  in  things  not 

harmful. 

2.  Total  abstinence  from  that  which  is  injurious. 

3.  Dangers  in  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors. 

4.  Courage  to  resist  social  temptations  to  indulgence. 

5.  Injurious  effects  of  tobacco  on  growing  boys. 

6.  Cigarette  smoking  by  boys  a  serious  evil. 

26.  EVIL  HABITS. 

1.  Those  that  injure  health. 

2.  That  destroy  reputation. 

3.  That  dishonor  one's  self  and  family. 

4.  That  waste  money. 

5.  That  take  away  self-control. 

6.  That  incur  needless  risks,  as  gambling. 

7.  That  are  offensive  to  others,  etc. 

27.  BAD  LANGUAGE. 

1.  Profanity,  foolish  and  wicked. 

2.  Obscenity,  base  and  offensive. 

3.  Defiling  books  or  other  things  with  obscene  words  and 

characters,  a  gross  offense. 

4.  The  use  of  slang,  vulgar  and  impolite. 


MORAL   INSTRUCTION. 

28.  EVIL  SPEAKING. 

1.  Slander  a  serious  offense. 

2.  Tale  bearing  to  injure  another. 

3.  Repeating  evil  which  one  has  heard  without  knowing 

that  it  is  true. 

4.  "  Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness  against  thy  neighbor." 

29.  INDUSTRY. 

1 .  Labor  a  duty  and  a  privilege. 

2.  Right  use  of  time. 

3.  Manual  labor  honorable. 

4.  Self-support  gives  manly  independence. 

5.  Avoidance  of  unnecessary  debt. 

6.  When  begging  is  right. 

7.  An  opportunity  to  earn  a  living  by  labor,  due  every  one. 

30*  ECONOMY. 

1.  Saving  in  early  life  means  competency  and  comfort  in 

old  age. 

2.  Duty  to  save  a  part  of  one's  earnings,  —  "  Lay  up  some- 

thing for  a  rainy  day." 

3.  Extravagance  wrong,  —  "A  spendthrift  in  youth,  a  poor 

man  in  old  age." 

4.  The  hoarding  of  money  needed  for  comfort  or  culture 

or  charity,  wrong. 

5.  Charity,  —  "  No  man  liveth  unto  himself." 

31.  PATRIOTISM. 

1.  Love  of  country. 

2.  Reverence  for  its  flag. 

3.  Respect  for  its  rulers. 

4.  Its  defense  when  necessary. 

5.  Regard  for  its  honor  and  good  name. 

32.  CIVIL  DUTIES. 

1 .  Obedience  to  law. 

2.  Fidelity  in  office, — bribery. 

3.  Honor  in  taking  an  oath, — perjury. 

4.  Duty  involved  in  the  ballot,  — buying  or  selling  votes. 

5.  Dignity  and  honor  of  citizenship,  etc. 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL  LESSONS. 


MATERIALS    FOR   MORAL   LESSONS. 

THIS  treatise  is  not  intended  to  be  a  text-book  for 
school  use,  and  so  no  attempt  is  made  to  present  moral 
lessons  in  detail,  —  the  steps  to  be  taken,  the  Needs  of 
questions  to  be  asked,  etc.  It  has,  however,  Teachers, 
seemed  desirable  to  present  sufficient  materials,  includ- 
ing stories,  literary  gems,  and  maxims,  to  enable  any 
earnest  teacher  to  make  a  promising  beginning.  This 
has  seemed  all  the  more  necessary,  for  the  reason  that 
so  many  teachers  have  very  limited  opportunities  for 
the  selection  of  such  material,  especially  stories.1  This 
is  specially  true  in  country  districts  and  in  small  towns. 
The  fear  that  hundreds  of  teachers  who  read  these 
pages  would  be  thus  deterred  from  an  earnest  attempt 
to  give  the  instruction  sketched,  has  led  us  to  take 
special  pains  in  collecting  sufficient  material  for  some 
fifty  or  more  lessons.  Fifteen  lessons,  each  with  story, 
gems,  and  maxims,  have  been  arranged  for  primary 
grades,  and  sixteen  other  lessons  for  more  advanced 
grades ;  and  to  these  are  added  stories,  literary  gems, 
and  maxims  for  use  in  arranging  other  lessons. 

The  stories  and  poetic  selections  given  are  usually 
brief,  since  longer  ones  would  require  more  space  than 

1  The  writer  has  recently  looked  over,  with  some  care,  nearly  five  hun- 
dred stories  used  by  the  teachers  in  one  of  our  large  cities,  no  one  teacher 
submitting  more  than  two  stories.  This  examination  has  clearly  disclosed 
the  fact  that  these  teachers,  though  favorably  situated,  had  greax  difficulty 
in  finding  stories  that  present  vital  moral  truth  in  an  attractive  manner. 
Many  of  the  stories  used  are  either  commonplace  or  too  pointless  to 
arouse  the  feelings  of  a  child.  A  few  are  excellent.  Several  of  the 
stories  herein  given  are  culled  from  this  collection  of  used  material. 


240  ,        SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

can  well  be  used  for  this  purpose.  This  necessity  of 
selecting  brief  stories  has  caused  the  exclusion  of  several 
which  are  superior  to  some  of  those  given. 
It  is,  however,  well  for  the  teacher  to  keep 
the  fact  in  mind  that  the  ethical  value  of  a  story  or 
other  narrative  does  not  depend  on  its  length  or  the 
formal  moral  at  its  close.  What  is  needed  is  a  narrative 
that  clearly,  and  if  possible  strikingly,  presents  the  vir- 
tue or  duty  to  be  taught,  —  one  that  is  specially  adapted 
to  awaken  right  feelings  and  quicken  the  conscience. 
An  example  that  can  be  told  in  a  few  sentences  may 
be  much  more  effective  than  one  that  fills  several 
pages. 

As  a  rule,  the  reading  of  longer  narratives,  such  as 
the  stories  and  tales  by  Hans  Christian  Andersen  and 

Home       Grimm,  may  be  left  to  the  home  (a  few  being 

Reading.  reacj  m  school) ;  and  such  valuable  reading 
may  very  properly  be  suggested,  and  even  directed, 
by  the  teacher.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  well  be 
given  to  the  importance  of  interesting  pupils  in  the 
reading  of  books  which  make  high  motives  in  conduct 
attractive,  and  strikingly  present  the  beauty  of  a 
noble  life.  A  great  gain  is  made  when  the  schools 
put  such  books  within  easy  reach  of  the  young.1 
The  moral  instruction  of  the  school  should  be 
supported,  not  subverted,  by  the  reading  of  the 
home. 

It  may  be  added,  that  the  literary  gems  and  maxims 
should  be  copied  by  the  pupils  in  books  provided  for 
the  purpose,  and  memorized.  The  more  of  such  literary 

1  The  reading  of  that  admirable  story,  Black  Beauty,  has  awakened 
in  many  a  boy  a  spirit  of  kindness  towards  the  horse  and  other  dumb 
animals,  that  will  remain  with  him  to  the  close  of  life. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  24! 

treasure  securely  held  in  the  memory  of  the  young,  the 
better. 

The  vital  fact  must  here  be  repeated,  that  the  teacher 
must  believe  and  feel  the  truth  which  he  teaches.  In 
order  to  reach  the  heart,  instruction  must  come  from 
the  heart. 


16 


242  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

LESSONS  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES. 

[POLITENESS.] 

I.    "PLEASE." 

"  Aunt,"  said  little  Grace,  "  I  believe  I  have  found  a  new  key  to 
unlock  people's  hearts  and  make  them  so  willing."  —  "  What  is  the 
key  ?  "  asked  her  aunt.  "  It  is  only  one  little  word,  — please.  If 
I  ask  one  of  the  girls  in  school,  '  Please  help  me  on  my  lesson,' 
she  says,  '  Oh,  yes  ! '  and  helps  me.  If  I  say  to  Sarah,  '  Please  do 
this  for  me,'  no  matter  what  she  may  be  doing,  she  will  stop  pleas- 
antly and  do  it.  If  I  say  to  uncle,  '  Please,'  he  says,  « Yes,  Grace, 
if  I  can.'  If  I  say,  «  Please,  aunt '  "  —  "  What  does  aunt  do  ?  " 
said  the  aunt  herself.  "  Oh,  you  look  and  smile  just  like  mother, 
and  that  is  the  best  of  all." 

Hearts,  like  doors,  will  ope  with  ease 

To  very,  very  little  keys ; 

And  don't  forget  that  two  are  these : 

"I  thank  you,  sir"  and  "  If  you  please" 

Good  boys  and  girls  should  never  say, 

"  I  will,"  and  "  Give  me  these  ;  " 
Oh,  no ;  that  never  is  the  way, 

But,  "  Mother,  if  you  please." 

To  be  polite  is  to  do  and  say 

The  kindest  thing  in  the  kindest  way. 

Nothing  costs  less  than  civility. 


[NEATNESS.] 

2.  THE  BOY  WHO  RECOMMENDED  HIMSELF. 

A  gentleman  advertised  for  a  boy  to  assist  him  in  his  office,  and 
nearly  fifty  applicants  presented  themselves  to  him.  Out  of  the 
whole  number,  he  selected  one,  and  dismissed  the  rest.  "  I  should 
like  to  know,"  said  a  friend,  "  on  what  ground  you  selected  that 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL  LESSONS.  243 

boy,  who  had  not  a  single  recommendation."  — "  You  are  mis- 
taken," said  the  gentleman,  "  he  had  a  great  many.  He  wiped 
his  feet  when  he  came  in,  and  closed  the  door  after  him,  showing 
that  he  was  careful.  He  gave  his  seat  instantly  to  that  lame  old 
man,  showing  that  he  was  kind  and  thoughtful.  He  took  off  his 
cap  when  he  came  in,  and  answered  my  questions  promptly,  show- 
ing that  he  was  polite  and  gentlemanly.  He  picked  up  the  book, 
which  I  had  purposely  laid  on  the  floor,  and  replaced  it  upon  the 
table,  while  all  the  rest  stepped  over  it,  showing  that  he  was 
orderly  ;  and  he  waited  quietly  for  his  turn,  instead  of  pushing  and 
crowding.  When  I  talked  to  him,  I  noticed  that  his  clothing  was 
tidy,  his  hair  neatly  brushed,  and  his  finger  nails  clean.  Do  you 
not  call  these  things  letters  of  recommendation?  I  do." 

LITTLE  CORPORAL. 

Let  thy  mind's  sweetness  have  its  operation 
Upon  thy  body,  clothes,  and  habitation. 

ANON. 

Cleanliness  is  next  to  godliness. 

[GBNTLBNBSS.] 

3.  SPEAK  GENTLY. 

"  Please  buy  my  penny  songs  !  "  cried  a  feeble  voice  in  one  of 
the  streets  of  our  great  city.  The  day  was  bitter  cold,  and  little 
Katie  had  left  her  cheerless  home  to  earn,  if  possible,  a  few 
pennies.  Poor  Katie  !  Her  little  voice  was  feeble  because  her 
heart  was  sad,  for  so  many  passed  her  by  unnoticed ;  and  she  felt 
almost  discouraged. 

Soon  she  found  herself  in  a  music  store,  standing  beside  a 
beautiful  lady,  who  was  sitting  there  selecting  music.  She  again 
uttered  her  little  cry,  "  Please  buy  a  penny  song  !  "  but  the  lady, 
not  hearing  what  she  said,  turned  towards  her,  and,  with  the  kind- 
est, sweetest  smile,  said  gently,  "  What  is  it,  darling  ?  "  at  the  same 
time  putting  a  piece  of  money  in  her  hand.  Katie,  not  thinking 
what  she  did,  laid  her  head  in  the  lady's  lap,  and  cried  as  though 
her  heart  would  break.  The  lady  tried  to  soothe  her ;  and  soon 
Katie  said,  "  O  lady  !  I  cry,  not  because  you  gave  me  money,  but 
because  you  spoke  so  kindly  to  me." 


244  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Speak  gently,  kindly  to  the  poor, 

Let  no  harsh  word  be  heard ; 
They  have  enough  they  must  endure, 

Without  an  unkind  word. 

DAVID  BATES. 

Every  gentle  word  you  say 

One  dark  spirit  drives  away ; 

Every  gentle  deed  you  do 
One  bright  spirit  brings  to  you. 

VIRGINIA  B.  HARRISON. 

A  gentle  spirit  makes  a  gentleman. 


[KINDNESS.] 

4.  KINDNESS  TO  A  BEGGAR.*1 

A  crippled  beggar  in  a  large  city  was  striving  to  pick  up  some  old 
clothes  that  had  been  thrown  from  a  window,  when  a  crowd  of 
rude  boys  gathered  about  him,  mimicking  his  awkward  movements, 
and  hooting  at  his  helplessness.  Presently  a  noble  little  fellow 
came  up,  and,  pushing  through  the  crowd,  helped  the  poor  cripple 
to  pick  up  his  gifts  and  fasten  them  in  a  bundle.  Then,  slipping  a 
piece  of  silver  into  his  hand,  he  was  running  away,  when  a  voice 
from  above  said,  "  Little  boy  with  the  straw  hat,  look  up !  "  He 
did  so,  and  a  lady,  leaning  from  an  upper  window,  said  earnestly, 
"  God  bless  you,  my  little  fellow  !  That  was  a  kind  and  noble  act." 

As  Harry  walked  home,  he  thought  of  the  poor  beggar's  grateful 
look,  of  the  lady's  smile  and  words  of  approval,  and  he  was  happy 

Kind  hearts  are  the  gardens, 
Kind  thoughts  are  the  roots, 
Kind  words  are  the  flowers, 
Kind  deeds  are  the  fruits. 

ALICE  GARY. 

1  This  and  the  following  stories  marked  with  a  sta-  '*)  are  taken,  with  some  modifica- 
tions, from  Cowdery's  Primary  Moral  Lessons  (1862),  an  excellent  collection  of  stories, 
now  out  of  print. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  24$ 

Little  deeds  of  kindness,  little  words  of  love, 
Make  our  earth  an  Eden  like  the  heaven  above. 

FRANCES  S.  OSGOOD. 

A  kind  deed  is  never  lost. 


[KINDNESS  TO  ANIMALS.] 

5.  LINCOLN'S  KINDNESS  TO  BIRDS. 

7     The  following  incident  is  related  by  one  who  knew  Lincoln,  and 
who,  at  the  time  of  the  incident,  was  his  fellow-traveler. 

We  passed  through  a  thicket  of  wild  plum  and  crab-apple  trees, 
and  stopped  to  water  our  horses.  One  of  the  party  came  up  alone, 
and  we  inquired,  "  Where  is  Lincoln  ? " 

"  Oh,"  he  replied,  "  when  I  saw  him  last,  he  had  caught  two 
young  birds  which  the  wind  had  blown  out  of  their  nest,  and  he 
was  hunting  for  the  nest  that  he  might  put  them  back  in  it." 

In  a  short  time  Lincoln  came  up,  having  found  the  nest  and  re- 
stored the  birds.  The  party  laughed  at  his  care  of  the  young 
birds ;  but  Lincoln  said,  "  I  could  not  have  slept  if  I  had  not 
restored  those  little  birds  to  their  mother." 

DEWEY'S  ETHICS. 

He  prayeth  well  who  loveth  well 
Both  man  and  bird  and  beast ; 

He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best 
All  things  both  great  and  small ; 
For  the  dear  God  who  loveth  us, 
He  made  and  loveth  all. 

COLERIDGE. 

PLEDGE  OF  BAND  OF  MERCY.  —  "  /  will  try  to  be  kind  to  all 
harmless  living  creatures,  and  to  protect  them  from  cruel  usage.'"1 


[LOVB.] 

6.  FILIAL  LOVE. 

Hundreds  of  years  ago,  an  unusually  violent  eruption  of  the  vol- 
cano of  j£tna  took  place.  Burning  matter  poured  down  the  sides 
of  the  mountain  in  various  directions,  destroying  whole  villages, 


246  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

and  the  air  was  thick  with  falling  cinders  and  ashes.  The  people 
fled  for  their  lives,  carrying  with  them  their  most  valuable  goods. 
Among  those  who  thus  fled  were  two  young  men  who  bore  on  their 
backs,  not  valuable  goods,  but  their  aged  parents,  whose  lives  could 
by  no  other  means  have  been  preserved.  It  chanced  that  in  their 
flight  they  took  a  way  which  the  burning  lava  did  not  touch,  and 
which  remained  verdant  while  all  around  was  scorched  and  barren. 
The  people  greatly  admired  the  love  and  filial  devotion  of  these 
youths,  and,  in  their  ignorance,  they  believed  that  the  tract  which 
they  traversed  had  been  preserved  by  a  miracle.  It  was  ever  after- 
wards called  the  "  Field  of  the  Pious." 

There  is  beauty  in  the  sunlight, 
And  the  soft  blue  heaven  above ; 
Oh,  the  world  is  full  of  beauty, 
When  the  heart  is  full  of  love. 

W.  S.  SMITH. 

A  mother  is  a  mother  still, 
The  holiest  thing  alive. 

COLERIDGE. 

Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother. 

[TRUTHFULNESS.] 

7.  THE  WOLF  (Fable). 

A  shepherd  boy  was  once  taking  care  of  some  sheep,  not  far 
from  a  forest.  There  was  a  village  near,  and  he  was  told  to  call 
for  help  if  there  was  any  danger. 

One  day,  in  order  to  have  some  fun,  he  cried  out,  as  loud  as  he 
could,  "  The  wolf  is  coming,  the  wolf  is  coming !  "  The  men 
came  running  with  clubs  and  axes  to  destroy  the  wolf.  As  they 
saw  nothing,  they  went  home  again,  and  left  the  boy  laughing  in 
his  sleeve. 

As  he  had  so  much  fun  this  time,  he  cried  out  again  the  next 
day,  "  The  wolf,  the  wolf  !  "  The  men  came  again ;  but  not  so 
many  as  before.  Seeing  no  trace  of  the  wolf,  they  shook  their 
heads,  and  went  back. 

On  the  third  day  the  wolf  came  in  earnest,  and  the  boy  cried  in 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL  LESSONS.  247 

dismay,  "  Help,  help  !  the  wolf,  the  wolf !  "  but  not  a  single  man 
came  to  help  him.  The  wolf  broke  into  the  flock,  and  killed  many 
of  the  sheep  ;  also  a  beautiful  pet  lamb  which  the  boy  loved  very 
much.  ^SOP. 

The  truth  itself  is  not  believed 
From  one  who  often  has  deceived. 

ANON. 

Whate'er  you  think,  whate'er  you  do, 
Whate'er  you  purpose  or  pursue, 
It  may  be  small,  but  must  be  true. 

ANON. 

There's  nothing  so  kingly  as  kindness, 
And  nothing  so  royal  as  truth. 

AJUICE  GARY. 

Without  truth  there  can  be  no  other  virtue. 


[FIDELITY  IN  DUTY.] 

8.  FAITHFUL  AUGUSTUS.* 

In  a  village  where  they  have  stagecoaches  instead  of  railroad 
cars,  a  neighbor  asked  a  very  obliging  boy,  by  the  name  of  Augus- 
tus, to  go  to  the  end  of  the  village,  where  he  could  see  a  long  dis- 
tance, and  give  him  notice  as  soon  as  he  saw  the  stagecoach  in 
sight.  This  the  boy  readily  consented  to  do.  He  stood  at  his 
position  about  half  an  hour,  when  Henry  came  along  and  said, 
"  Come  with  me  to  the  square ;  we  are  going  to  have  a  splendid 
game  of  ball.  All  the  boys  are  coming."  Augustus  replied  that  he 
could  not  come  then,  as  he  had  promised  a  neighbor  to  watch  for 
the  stagecoach,  and  to  let  him  know  the  moment  he  saw  it.  "  But 
how  long  are  you  going  to  stand  here  waiting  for  it  ?  "  said  Henry. 
"  Until  the  stagecoach  comes  in  sight,"  said  Augustus.  "  We 
thought  you  would  certainly  join  us,"  said  Henry ;  "  and  I  am  sure 
you  have  waited  long  enough."  He  then  began  to  make  fun  of 
Augustus,  and  to  ridicule  his  "  simplicity,"  as  he  called  it.  But 
the  faithful  boy  firmly  refused  to  leave  his  post.  He  was  obliged  to 
wait  a  good  half  hour  longer.  At  length  he  saw  the  stage  coming 
over  the  distant  hill,  and  ran  with  joy  to  give  the  notice  to  the 


248  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

gentleman,  as  he  had  promised  he  would.     The  gentleman  not  only 
thanked  the  boy  for  waiting  so  long,  but  rewarded  him  liberally. 

If  a  task  is  once  begun, 
Never  leave  it  till  it's  done  ; 
Be  the  labor  great  or  small, 
Do  it  well  or  not  at  all. 

PHCEBE  GARY. 

The  boys  and  girls  who  do  their  best, 

Their  best  will  better  grow ; 
But  those  who  slight  their  daily  task, 

They  let  the  better  go. 

ANON. 

Do  your  best,  your  very  best, 
And  do  it  every  day. 

What  is  worth  doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well. 
He  who  does  his  best,  does  well. 


[OBEDIENCE.] 

9.  "  IN  A  MINUTE." 

Dora  was  a  little  girl  six  years  old.  She  loved  her  dear  mamma 
very  much.  But  the  little  girl  had  one  fault,  which  made  her 
mamma  very  sad.  If  her  mamma  told  her  to  get  the  scissors,  she 
would  say,  "  Yes,  mamma,  in  a  minute."  If  she  was  told  to  do 
anything,  she  would  say,  "  In  a  minute." 

Dora  had  a  pretty  pet  canary.  She  was  very  fond  of  the  little 
birdie,  because  it  could  sing  so  sweetly.  If  Dora  called  it,  it  would 
leave  its  cage  and  hop  about  the  room.  One  day  Dora  opened  the 
cage  and  called  her  birdie.  It  came  out  and  hopped  about  the 
room,  Dora's  mamma  told  her  to  close  the  door,  for  the  cat  might 
come  in  and  kill  birdie.  "  Yes,  mamma,  I  will  close  it  in  a  minute," 
said  Dora.  Just  then  the  cat  came  and  took  birdie  between  its 
sharp  teeth.  Now  Dora  ran  to  close  the  door,  but  it  was  too  late. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  249 

The  cat  had  killed  the  little  bird,  and  it  was  Dora's  fault.  Dora 
was  very  sorry,  and  she  never  again  said  to  her  mamma,  u  In  a 
minute." 

If  you're  told  to  do  a  thing, 
And  mean  to  do  it  really, 
Never  let  it  be  by  halves  ; 
Do  it  fully,  freely. 

Do  not  make  a  poor  excuse, 

Waiting,  weak,  unsteady ; 
All  obedience  worth  the  name 

Must  be  prompt  and  ready. 

PHOEBE  GARY. 

Obedience  is  better  than  sacrifice. 
Procrastination  is  the  thief  of  time. 


[NOBILITY.] 

10.   A  NOBLE  SERVANT.* 

The  captain  of  a  ship  was  absent  from  it  one  day,  being  on  board 
another  vessel.  While  he  was  gone,  a  storm  arose,  which  in  a  short 
time  made  an  entire  wreck  of  his  own  ship,  to  which  it  had  not  been 
possible  for  him  to  return.  He  had  left  on  board  two  little  boys, 
the  one  four  years  old  and  the  other  six,  under  the  care  of  a  young 
colored  servant.  The  people  struggled  to  get  out  of  the  sinking 
ship  into  a  large  boat ;  and  the  poor  servant  took  the  captain's  two 
little  children,  tied  them  into  a  sack,  and  put  them  into  the  boat, 
which  by  this  time  was  quite  full.  He  was  stepping  into  it  himself, 
but  was  told  by  the  officer  that  there  was  no  room  for  him ;  that 
either  he  or  the  children  must  perish,  for  the  weight  of  all  would 
sink  the  boat.  The  heroic  servant  did  not  hesitate  a  moment. 
"  Very  weM,"  said  he ;  "  give  my  love  to  my  master,  and  tell  him  I 
beg  pardon  for  all  my  faults  ;  "  and  then  he  went  to  the  bottom, 
never  to  rise  again  till  the  sea  shall  give  up  its  dead. 

Beautiful  faces  are  those  that  wear 
The  light  of  a  pleasant  spirit  there  ; 
It  matters  little  if  dark  or  fair. 


250  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Beautiful  hands  are  those  that  do 
Deeds  that  are  noble,  good,  and  true  ; 
Busy  with  them  the  long  day  through. 

Beautiful  feet  are  those  that  go 

Swiftly  to  lighten  another's  woe, 

Through  the  summer's  heat  or  winter's  snow. 

Beautiful  children,  if,  rich  or  poor, 
They  walk  the  pathways  sweet  and  pure 
That  lead  to  the  mansion  strong  and  sure. 

ANON. 

Handsome  is  that  handsome  does. 


[COURAGE.] 

ii.  A  LITTLE  HERO. 

A  boy  in  the  town  of  Weser,  in  Germany,  playing  one  day  with 
his  sister,  four  years  of  age,  was  alarmed  by  the  cry  of  some  men, 
who  were  in  pursuit  of  a  mad  dog.  The  boy,  suddenly  looking 
around,  saw  the  dog  running  toward  him  ;  but,  instead  of  making 
his  escape,  he  calmly  took  off  his  coat,  and,  wrapping  it  around  his 
arm,  boldly  faced  the  dog.  Holding  out  the  arm  covered  with  the 
coat,  the  animal  attacked  it,  and  worried  it  until  the  men  came  up 
and  killed  the  dog.  The  men  reproachfully  asked  the  boy  why  he 
did  not  run  and  avoid  the  dog,  which  he  could  so  easily  have  done. 
"  Yes,"  said  the  little  hero,  "  I  could  have  run  from  the  dog ;  but, 
if  I  had,  he  would  have  attacked  my  sister.  To  protect  her,  J 
offered  him  my  coat,  that  he  might  tear  it." 

Dare  to  do  right  !     Dare  to  be  true ! 
The  failings  of  others  can  never  save  you ; 
Stand  by  your  conscience,  your  honor,  your  faith ; 
Stand  like  a  hero  and  battle  till  death. 

WILSOK. 

True  courage  dares  to  do  right. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  251 

[BAD  COMPANY.] 

12.    DOG  TRAY  (Fable). 

Tray  was  a  very  good  dog.  One  day  a  very  bad  dog,  named 
Bruno,  asked  him  to  go  to  the  village  with  him.  Tray  said  he 
would  go  if  Bruno  would  behave  well.  Bruno  promised  to  do  so, 
and  they  set  out  together.  When  they  reached  the  village,  Bruno 
barked  at  every  child,  worried  every  cat,  and  quarreled  with  every 
dog,  he  met.  So  the  villagers  ran  after  the  two  dogs,  and  beat 
them  both  soundly,  —  Bruno  because  he  was  bad,  and  Tray  be- 
cause he  was  found  in  bad  company. 

If  wisdom's  ways  you  wisely  seek, 

Five  things  observe  with  care : 
To  whom  you  speak,  of  whom  you  speak, 

And  how,  and  when,  and  where. 

ANON. 

A  man  is  known  by  the  company  he  keeps. 


[RESPBCT  FOR  THE  AGED.] 

13.   SOMEBODY'S  MOTHER.  l 

When  our  train  reached  Clinton,  the  conductor  entered  the  car, 
and,  taking  the  bundles  of  a  very  old  lady,  carefully  helped  her  to 
the  platform,  and  then,  giving  her  his  arm,  conducted  her  to  the 
waiting  room,  and  placed  her  bundles  beside  her.  He  then  sig- 
naled the  engineer,  and  boarded  the  moving  train.  Struck  by  this 
unusual  civility  to  a  poor  woman,  a  gentleman  said,  "  I  beg  pardon, 
Mr.  Conductor.  Was  that  old  lady  your  mother  ?  "  —  "  No,"  said 
the  conductor,  "  but  she  is  somebody's  mother."  —  SANFORD. 

Be  kind  and  be  gentle 
To  those  who  are  old, 
For  dearer  is  kindness, 
And  better,  than  gold. 

ANON. 

1  For  a  beantiful  story  in  verse,  en  titled,  "Somebody's  Mother,"  see  Williams  and 
Foster's  Selections  for  Memorizing,  p.  30. 


252  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

A  good  deed  is  never  lost.     He  who  sows  courtesy  reaps  friend- 
ship, and  he  who  plants  kindness  gathers  love.  —  BASIL. 

Honor  the  face  of  the  old  man. 


[HONBSTV  ] 

14.   THE  HONEST  BOOTBLACK. 

A  few  years  since,  a  manly  boy  about  nine  years  old  stepped  up 
to  a  gentleman  in  the  Grand  Central  Depot,  New  York,  and  asked, 
"  Shine,  sir  ?  "  —  "  Yes,  I  want  my  shoes  blacked,"  said  the  gentle- 
man. "  Then  I  would  be  glad  to  shine  them,  sir,"  said  the  boy. 
"  Have  I  time  to  catch  the  Hudson  River  train  ?  "  —  "  No  time  to 
lose,  sir ;  but  I  can  give  you  a  good  job  before  it  pulls  out.  Shall 
I  ?  "  —  "  Yes,  my  boy.  Don't  let  me  be  left." 

In  two  seconds  the  bootblack  was  on  his  knees  and  hard  at 
work.  "  The  train  is  going,  sir,"  said  the  boy,  as  he  gave  the  last 
touch.  The  gentleman  gave  the  boy  a  ,half  dollar,  and  started  for 
the  train.  The  boy  counted  out  the  change  and  ran  after  the 
gentleman,  but  was  too  late,  for  the  train  was  gone. 

Two  years  later  the  same  gentleman,  coming  to  New  York,  met 
the  bootblack,  but  had  forgotten  him.  The  boy  remembered  the 
gentleman,  and  asked  him,  "  Didn't  I  shine  your  shoes  once  in  the 
Grand  Central  Depot  ?  "  —  "  Some  boy  did,"  said  the  man.  "  I 
am  the  boy,  and  here  is  your  change,  sir."  The  gentleman  was  so 
pleased  with  the  lad's  honesty,  that  he  went  with  him  to  see  his 
mother,  and  offered  to  adopt  him,  as  he  needed  such  a  boy.  The 
mother  consented,  and  the  honest  bootblack  had  after  that  a  good 
home.  He  was  given  a  good  education,  and,  when  a  man,  became 
a  partner  in  the  gentleman's  large  business. 

Do  what  conscience  says  is  right ; 
Do  what  reason  says  is  best ; 
Do  with  all  your  mind  and  might ; 
Do  your  duty  and  be  blest. 

ANON. 

An  honest  man  is  the  noblest  work  of  God. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  253 

i  INDUSTRY.] 

15.   THE  GRASSHOPPER  AND  THE  BEE  (Fable). 

A  grasshopper,  half  starved  with  cold  and  hunger,  came  to  a 
well-stored  beehive  at  the  approach  of  winter,  and  humbly  begged 
the  bees  to  relieve  his  wants  with  a  few  drops  of  honey. 

One  of  the  bees  asked  him  how  he  had  spent  his  time  all  the 
summer,  and  why  he  had  not  laid  up  a  store  of  food,  as  they  had 
done. 

"Truly,"  said  he,  "I  spent  my  time  very  merrily  in  drinking 
and  dancing  and  singing,  and  never  thought  about  the  winter." 

"  Our  plan  is  very  different,"  said  the  bee.  "  We  work  hard  in 
summer  to  lay  by  a  store  of  food  against  the  season  when  we  fore- 
see that  we  shall  want  it.  Those  who  do  nothing  but  drink  and 
dance  and  sing  in  the  summer,  must  expect  to  starve  in  winter." 

How  doth  the  little  busy  bee 

Improve  each  shining  hour, 
And  gather  honey  all  the  day 

From  every  opening  flower  ! 

ISAAC  WATTS. 

Little  by  little  all  tasks  are  done ; 

So  are  the  crowns  of  the  faithful  won, 

So  is  heaven  in  our  hearts  begun. 

ANON. 

For  Satan  finds  some  mischief  still, 
For  idle  hands  to  do. 

Idleness  is  the  mother  of  want. 
Lay  up  something  for  a  rainy  day. 


254  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

LESSONS  FOR  GRAMMAR  GRADES. 

(Above  Primary.} 

[KINDNESS.] 

1 6.   KINDNESS  RETURNED. 

One  day  a  lady  who  was  riding  in  a  stagecoach  saw  a  lad  on 
the  road  barefoot  and  seemingly  very  footsore.  She  asked  the 
coachman  to  take  him  up,  and  said  she  would  pay  for  him. 
When  the  coach  reached  the  end  of  its  journey,  the  kind  lady 
found  that  the  poor  lad  was  bound  for  the  nearest  seaport,  to 
offer  himself  as  a  sailor. 

Twenty  years  afterwards,  on  the  same  road,  a  sea  captain,  rid- 
ing on  a  stagecoach,  saw  an  old  lady  walking  wearily  along,  and 
he  asked  the  coachman  to  pull  up  his  horses.  He  then  put  the 
old  lady  inside  the  coach,  saying,  "  I'll  pay  for  her."  When 
they  next  changed  horses,  the  old  lady  thanked  the  captain,  say- 
ing, "  I  am  too  poor  to  pay  for  a  ride  now." 

The  captain  told  her  that  he  always  felt  for  those  who  had  to 
walk,  as  she  had  been  doing,  and  added,  "  I  remember,  twenty 
years  ago,  near  this  very  place,  I  was  a  poor  lad  walking  along 
the  road,  and  a  kind  lady  paid  for  me  to  ride." 

"  Ah  !  "  said  she,  "  I  am  that  lady  ;  but  things  have  changed 
with  me  since  then." 

"  Weil,"  said  the  captain,  "  I  have  made  a  fortune,  and  have 
come  home  to  enjoy  it.  I  will  allow  you  twenty-five  pounds  a 
year  as  long  as  you  live."  The  old  lady  burst  into  tears,  as  she 
gratefully  accepted  the  sailor's  offer. 

True  worth  is  in  being,  not  seeming ; 

In  doing  each  day  that  goes  by 
Some  little  good,  not  in  the  dreaming 

Of  great  things  to  do  by  and  by. 
For  whatever  men  say  in  blindness, 

And  spite  of  the  fancies  of  youth, 
There's  nothing  so  kingly  as  kindness, 

And  nothing  so  royal  as  truth. 

ALICE  GARY. 

Do  unto  others  as  ye  would  that  others  should  do  unto  you. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS. 

[KINDNESS  TO  ANIMALS.] 

17.   THE  EIDER  DUCK. 

In  a  far  northern  county,  one  day,  a  man  was  walking  along 
with  a  gun  upon  his  shoulder,  and  beside  him  was  his  little  son. 
Suddenly  the  boy  raised  his  hand  and  pointed  at  a  large  bird 
standing  upon  a  rock  above  their  heads.  The  bird  seemed  to  be 
hard  at  work ;  it  spread  its  wings,  bent  its  head,  and  leaped  about. 

"  There,  father,  is  a  fine  great  bird.  Shoot,  oh,  shoot  it, 
quick !  "  The  father  hesitated.  He  knew  that  he  must  supply 
his  family  with  food,  but  he  did  not  like  to  kill  the  bird.  "  Why 
don't  you  shoot,  father  ?  The  bird  will  be  gone.  What  makes 
her  act  so  queer  ?  What  is  she  doing  ?  " 

"  She  is  a  fine  large  bird,  my  boy,"  said  the  father,  "  but  I  can- 
not shoot  her.  She  is  an  eider  duck,  a  mother  bird ;  and  she  is 
tearing  the  feathers  out  from  her  own  breast  to  make  a  soft,  warm 
bed  for  her  little  ones.  It  hurts  her,  but  she  does  not  mind  it, 
because  she  loves  them  better  than  she  does  herself." 

The  father  then  told  the  boy  a  touching  story  of  a  mother,  who, 
in  a  terrible  storm,  took  the  shawl  from  her  own  shoulders  to  wrap 
her  baby,  that  it  might  not  surfer,  though  she  came  near  perishing 
with  cold.  "  That  baby,"  he  added,  "  was  your  little  sister,  my 
boy." 

The  boy,  looking  up,  saw  tears  in  his  father's  eyes.  "  Is  that 
what  the  eider  duck  is  doing  ?  "  he  said.  "  O  father  !  let  her  live." 
And  so  the  loving  mother  bird  was  spared  to  care  for  her  young. 

I  would  not  enter  on  my  list  of  friends, 

Though  graced  with  polished  manners  and  fine  sense, 

Yet  wanting  sensibility,  the  man 

Who  needlessly  sets  foot  upon  a  worm. 

COWPER 

Kindness  is  its  own  reward. 


1 8.    LOVE. 
Stories :  — 

"  The  Good  Samaritan  "  (Luke  x.  30-37). 
"  Damon  and  Pythias." 
"  Abou  Ben  Adhem." 


256  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

The  night  has  a  thousand  eyes, 

And  the  day  but  one  ; 
Yet  the  light  of  the  bright  world  dies 

With  the  setting  sun. 

The  mind  has  a  thousand  eyes, 

And  the  heart  but  one  ; 
Yet  the  light  of  a  whole  life  dies 

When  love  is  done. 

F.  W.  BOURDILLON. 

Within  each  soul  the  God  above 
Sets  the  rich  jewel,  human  love  ; 
The  fairest  gem  that  graces  youth, 
Is  Love's  companion,  fearless  Truth. 

PAMELA  SAVAGE. 

Love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself. 

[TRUTHFULNESS.] 

19.   THE  TRUTHFUL  PERSIAN. 

It  is  told  of  Abdoul  Kauder,  the  distinguished  Persian  saint,  that 
in  early  childhood  he  was  smitten  with  the  desire  of  devoting  him- 
self to  sacred  things,  and  wished  to  go  to  Bagdad  to  obtain  knowl- 
edge. His  mother  gave  her  consent ;  and,  taking  out  eighty  deenars 
of  money,  she  told  him,  that,  as  he  had  a  brother,  half  of  that 
would  be  his  only  inheritance.  As  she  gave  him  the  money,  she 
made  him  promise  solemnly  never  to  tell  a  lie,  and  then  bade  him 
farewell,  saying,  "  Go,  my  son ;  I  give  thee  to  God.  We  skall 
not  meet  again  on  earth." 

He  joined  a  party  of  travelers,  and  at  Hamadan  they  were  at- 
tacked and  plundered  by  a  band  of  mounted  robbers.  One  of  the 
robbers  asked  Abdoul  Kauder  what  he  had.  "  Forty  deenars," 
said  the  lad,  "  are  sewed  up  in  my  clothes."  The  fellow  laughed, 
thinking  that  he  was  jesting.  "  What  have  you  got  ?  "  said  an- 
other robber,  and  the  boy  gave  the  same  answer. 

When  they  were  dividing  the  spoil,  he  was  called  to  an  eminence 
where  the  chief  stood.  "  What  property  have  you,  my  little  fel- 
low ?  "  said  he.  "  I  have  forty  deenars  sewed  up  carefully  in  my 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS. 

clothes."  The  chief  desired  them  to  be  ripped  open,  and  A'ound 
the  money. 

"  And  how  came  you,"  said  he  with  surprise,  "  to  tell  so  openly 
what  had  been  so  carefully  hidden  ?  "  —  "  Because,"  said  Abdoul 
Kauder,  "  I  will  not  be  false  to  my  mother,  whom  I  have  promised 
that  I  will  never  tell  a  lie." 

"  Child,"  said  the  robber,  "  hast  thou  such  a  sense  of  duty  to 
thy  mother,  at  thy  years,  and  am  I  insensible,  at  my  age,  of  duty  to 
God  ?  Give  me  thy  hand,  innocent  boy,  that  I  may  swear  repent- 
ance on  it."  He  did  so,  and  his  followers  were  all  alike  struck 
with  the  scene. 

"  You  have  been  our  leader  in  guilt,"  said  they  to  their  chief ; 
"  be  the  same  in  the  path  of  virtue ;  "  and  they  instantly,  at  his 
order,  gave  back  the  spoil,  and  vowed  repentance  on  the  hand  of 
the  boy.  MISCELLANY. 

Think  truly,  and  thy  thoughts 
Shall  the  world's  famine  feed ; 
Speak  truly,  and  each  word  of  thine 
Shall  be  a  faithful  seed  ; 
Live  truly,  and  thy  life  shall  be 
A  great  and  noble  creed. 

H.  BONAR. 

Dare  to  be  true,  nothing  can  need  a  lie ; 

A  fault  which  needs  it  most  grows  two  thereby. 

GEORGE  HERBERT. 

Think  the  truth,  speak  the  truth,  act  the  truth. 


[FIDELITY  IN  DUTY.] 

20.   THE  FAITHFUL  LITTLE  HOLLANDER. 

In  some  parts  of  Holland  the  land  lies  so  low,  that  the  people 
build  great  walls  of  earth,  called  dikes,  to  keep  out  the  sea. 
Sometimes  the  waves  break  down  these  walls,  and  then  the  sea 
rushes  in  through  the  breach,  and  spreads  over  the  land,  often 
doing  great  damage.  Houses  have  thus  been  washed  away,  and 
many  people  drowned. 
17 


2$8  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Once  as  a  little  boy  was  going  home  in  the  evening,  he  saw  a 
hole  in  one  of  the  dikes,  through  which  the  water  was  trickling. 
His  father  had  often  told  him  that  when  this  happened,  unless  the 
water  was  stopped,  it  would  soon  make  the  hole  so  large  that 
the  sea  would  rush  in  and  overflow  the  land. 

At  first  he  thought  he  would  run  home  and  tell  his  father.  But 
then  he  said  to  himself,  "It  may  be  dark  before  father  can  come, 
and  we  shall  not  be  able  to  find  the  hole  again ;  or  it  may  get  so 
large  that  it  will  be  too  late  to  stop  it.  I  must  stay  now,  and  do 
the  best  I  can  alone." 

The  brave  little  boy  sat  down,  and  stopped  the  hole  with  earth, 
holding  it  with  his  hand  to  keep  back  the  water.  There  he  staid 
hour  after  hour  in  the  cold  and  the  dark,  all  through  the  night. 

In  the  morning  a  man  came  past  and  saw  him.  He  could  not 
think  what  the  boy  was  doing;  and  so  he  called  out  to  him, 
"  What  are  you  doing  there,  my  boy  ?  "  —  "  There  is  a  hole  in 
the  dike,"  said  the  boy,  "  and  I  am  keeping  back  the  water." 

Poor  little  boy  !  He  was  so  cold  and  tired  that  he  could  scarely 
speak.  The  man  came  quickly  and  set  him  free.  He  had  the 
hole  closed  up,  and  thus  the  land  was  saved,  thanks  to  the  faithful 
and  brave  boy.  ROYAL  READEF  . 

We  live  in  deeds,  not  years ;  in  thoughts,  not  breaths ; 
In  feelings,  not  in  figures  on  2  dial. 
We  should  count  time  by  heart  throbs.     He  most  lives 
Who  thinks  most,  feels  the  noblest,  acts  the  best. 

P.  J.  BAILEY. 

Whene'er  a  noble  deed  is  wrought, 
Whene'er  is  spoken  a  noble  thought, 
Our  hearts  in  glad  surprise 
To  higher  levels  rise. 

LONGFELLOW. 
Reward  is  in  the  doing. 

Deeds  are  greater  than  words. 


[OBEDIENCE.] 

21.   OBEYING  ORDERS. 


An  English  farmer  was  one  day  at  work  in  the  fields,  when  he 
saw  a  party  of  huntsmen  riding  about  his  farm.  He  had  one  field 
that  he  was  specially  anxious  they  should  not  ride  over,  as  the  crop 


MATERIALS  FOR   MORAL   LESSONS.  259 

was  in  a  condition  to  be  badly  injured  by  the  tramp  of  horses,  so  he 
dispatched  a  boy  in  his  employ  to  this  field,  telling  him  to  shut  the 
gate  and  keep  watch  over  it,  and  on  no  account  to  suffer  it  to  be 
opened. 

The  boy  went  as  he  was  bid,  but  was  scarcely  at  his  post  before 
the  huntsmen  came  up,  peremptorily  ordering  the  gate  to  be  opened. 
This  the  boy  declined  to  do,  stating  the  orders  he  had  received, 
and  his  determination  not  to  disobey  them.  Threats  and  bribes 
were  offered  alike  in  vain.  One  after  another  came  forward  as 
spokesman,  but  all  with  the  same  result.  The  boy  remained  im- 
movable in  his  determination  not  to  open  the  gate. 

After  a  while  one  of  noble  presence  advanced,  and  said  in  com- 
manding tones,  "  My  boy,  do  you  know  me  ?  I  am  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  —  one  not  accustomed  to  be  disobeyed  :  and  I  com- 
mand you  to  open  the  gate,  that  I  and  my  friends  may  pass 
through."  The  boy  lifted  his  cap,  and  stood  uncovered  before  the 
man  whom  all  England  delighted  to  honor,  and  then  answered 
firmly,  "  I  am  sure  the  Duke  of  Wellington  would  not  want  me  to 
disobey  orders.  I  must  keep  the  gate  shut.  No  one  is  to  pass 
through  but  with  my  master's  express  permission." 

Greatly  pleased,  the  sturdy  warrior  lifted  his  own  hat,  and  said, 
"  I  honor  the  man  or  boy  who  can  be  neither  bribed  nor  frightened 
into  doing  wrong.  With  an  army  of  such  soldiers,  I  could  conquer 
not  only  the  French,  but  the  world ;  "  and,  handing  the  boy  a 
glittering  sovereign,  the  old  duke  put  spurs  to  his  horse  and  gal- 
loped away.  WATCHWORD. 

Dare  forsake  what  you  deem  wrong, 
Dare  to  do  what  you  deem  right ; 
Dare  your  conscience  to  obey  ; 

Nor  dare  alone,  but  do  with  might. 

ANON. 
Whenever  a  noble  deed  is  done, 

'Tis  the  pulse  of  a  hero's  heart  is  stirred ; 
Wherever  the  right  has  a  triumph  won, 
There  are  the  heroes'  voices  heard. 

EDNA  DEAN  PROCTOR. 

Obedience  is  better  than  sacrifice. 
Fear  nothing  but  a  wrong  act. 


26O  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

[NOBILITY.] 

22.    THE  NOBLE  SAILOR  BOY.* 

A  little  boy  twelve  years  of  age,  poor  and  ragged,  came  into  the 
car  between  Boston  and  Fall  River.  There  was  a  slight  shrinking 
from  him  manifested  by  some  of  the  well-dressed  passengers.  He 
took  his  seat  quietly  near  me,  and  a  sea  captain,  who  entered  at  the 
same  time,  told  me  his  touching  story. 

He  said  that  the  boy  was  a  poor  orphan,  and  three  days  before 
had  been  wrecked  near  Montauk  Point ;  the  schooner,  upon  which 
he  was,  being  struck  by  a  white  squall  and  instantly  sunk.  While 
the  lad  was  floating  upon  some  wood,  a  vessel  near,  which  had 
seen  the  accident,  sent  forth  its  boat  to  save  from  a  watery  grave 
any  who  might  be  rescued.  They  spied  the  little  boy  floating  amid 
the  waste  of  waters,  and  approached  him ;  but  he,  with  generosity, 
alas !  too  rare,  cried  out,  "  Never  mind  me  !  Save  the  captain  ;  he 
has  a  wife  and  six  children."  Poor  fellow  !  He  knew  that  the 
captain  had  those  who  loved  him  and  would  need  his  support. 

The  captain,  in  telling  the  story,  was  much  affected,  and  said, 
with  a  generosity  characteristic  of  the  mariner,  "  The  boy  has  only 
the  clothes  you  see,  sir.  I  care  not  much  for  myself,  though  I  too 
lost  all ;  but  the  poor  lad  will  have  a  hard  time  of  it." 

The  passengers  in  the  car,  on  learning  the  circumstances, 
promptly  made  up  a  purse  of  several  dollars  for  the  boy's  benefit. 

Howe'er  it  be,  it  seems  to  me, 
'Tis  only  noble  to  be  good ; 
Kind  hearts  are  more  than  coronets, 
And  simple  faith  than  Norman  blood. 

TENNYSON. 

How  far  that  little  candle  throws  its  beams ! 
So  shines  a  good  deed  in  a  naughty  world. 

SHAKESPEARE. 
A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever. 

A  noble  deed  never  dies. 


[RESPECT  AND  REVERENCE.] 

23.   SPARTAN  RESPECT  FOR  THE  AGED. 

There  was  a  great  play  at  the  principal  theater  in  Athens  one 
night.     The  seats  set  apart  for  strangers  were  filled  with  Spartan 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  26 1 

boys ;  and  other  seats,  not  far  distant,  were  filled  with  Athenian 
youth.  The  theater  was  crowded,  when  an  old  man,  infirm,  and 
leaning  on  a  staff,  entered.  There  was  no  seat  for  him.  The  Athe- 
nian youth  called  to  the  old  man  to  come  to  them,  and  with  great 
difficulty  he  picked  his  way  to  their  benches ;  but  not  a  boy  rose 
and  offered  him  a  seat.  Seeing  this,  the  Spartan  boys  beckoned  to 
the  old  man  to  come  to  them,  and,  as  he  approached  their  benches, 
every  Spartan  boy  rose,  and,  with  uncovered  head,  stood  until 
the  old  man  was  seated,  and  then  all  quietly  resumed  their 
seats.  Seeing  this,  the  Athenians  broke  out  in  loud  applause. 
The  old  man  rose,  and,  in  a  voice  that  filled  the  theater,  said, 
"  The  Athenians  know  what  is  right :  the  Spartans  do  it." 

"  One  of  the  lessons  oftenest  and  most  strongly  inculcated  upon 
the  Lacedaemonian  youth,  was  to  entertain  great  reverence  and 
respect  for  old  men,  and  to  give  them  proof  of  it  on  all  occasions, 
by  saluting  them ;  by  making  way  for  them,  and  giving  them  place 
in  the  streets ;  by  rising  up  to  show  them  honor  in  all  companies 
and  public  assemblies ;  but,  above  all,  by  receiving  their  advice, 
and  even  their  reproofs,  with  docility  and  submission.  If  a  Lace- 
daemonian behaved  otherwise,  it  was  looked  upon  as  a  reproach 
to  himself  and  a  dishonor  to  his  country."  —  ROLLINS. 

Me  let  the  tender  office  long  engage 

To  rock  the  cradle  of  reposing  age; 

With  lenient  arts  extend  a  mother's  breath, 

Make  languor  smile,  and  smooth  the  bed  of  death ; 

Explore  the  thought,  explain  the  asking  eye, 

And  keep  awhile  one  parent  from  the  sky. 

POPE. 

Thou  shalt  rise  up  before  the  hoary  head. 


[FORGIVENESS.] 

24.   THE  FORGIVING  INDIAN.* 

Many  years  since,  when  white  people  were  making  settlements 
near  the  tribes  of  Indians,  an  English  gentleman  was  standing  one 
evening  at  his  door,  when  an  Indian  called  and  asked  for  food. 
The  man  replied  that  he  had  none  to  give  him.  The  Indian  then 


262  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

asked  for  a  little  corn,  and  received  the  same  answer.  He  then 
asked  for  a  cup  of  water,  when  the  man  said  sternly,  "  Begone,  you 
Indian  dog!  you  can  have  nothing  here."  The  Indian  looked 
steadfastly  at  the  Englishman  for  a  moment,  and  then  turned  and 
went  away. 

Some  time  after,  this  gentleman,  being  very  fond  of  hunting, 
followed  his  game  until  he  was  lost  in  the  woods.  After  wandering 
around  for  a  while,  he  saw  an  Indian  hut  and  went  in  to  inquire  his 
way  home.  The  Indian  told  him  he  was  a  long  distance  from  his 
cabin,  and  very  kindly  urged  him  to  stay  all  night.  He  prepared 
some  supper  for  the  hunter,  and  gave  him  his  own  bed  of  deerskin 
to  lie  on  for  the  night.  In  the  morning  the  Indian,  in  company 
with  another  Indian,  insisted  upon  going  with  the  Englishman  to 
show  him  the  way  home.  Taking  their  guns,  the  two  Indians  went 
before,  and  the  man  followed.  After  traveling  several  miles,  the 
Indian  told  him  he  was  near  a  white  settlement,  and  then  stepped 
before  the  man's  face  and  said,  "  Do  you  know  me  ?  "  The  man 
answered  with  much  confusion,  "  I  have  seen  you."  — "  Yes" 
replied  the  Indian,  "  you  have  seen  me  at  your  own  door ;  and 
when  an  Indian  calls  on  you  again,  hungry  and  thirsty,  do  not  say, 
1  Begone,  you  Indian  dog  ! ' ' 

Oh,  many  a  shaft  at  random  sent 

Finds  mark  the  archer  little  meant ! 

And  many  a  word  at  random  spoken, 

May  soothe,  or  wound,  a  heart  that's  broken. 

SCOTT. 

Man's  inhumanity  to  man 
Makes  countless  thousands  mourn. 

BURNS. 

//  always  pays  to  be  a  gentleman, 
Quick  to  forgive,  slow  to  anger. 


[HONOR  AND  TRUTH.] 

25.   "  LITTLE  SCOTCH  GRANITE." 

Bert  and  John  Lee  were  delighted  when  their  little  Scotch  cousin 
came  to  live  with  them.  He  was  little,  but  very  bright  and  full  of 
fun.  He  could  tell  some  curious  things  about  his  home  in  Scot- 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  263 

land  and  his  voyage  across  the  ocean.  He  was  as  far  advanced  in 
his  studies  as  they  were,  and,  the  first  day  he  went  to  school,  they 
thought  him  remarkably  good.  He  wasted  no  time  in  play  when 
he  should  have  been  studying,  and  he  advanced  finely. 

Before  the  close  of  school,  the  teacher  called  the  roll,  and  the 
boys  began  to  answer  "  Ten."  When  Willie  understood  that  he 
was  to  say  "  ten  "  if  he  had  not  whispered  during  the  day,  he  replied, 
"  I  have  whispered."  —  "  More  than  once  ?  "  asked  the  teacher. 
"  Yes,  sir,"  answered  Willie.  "  As  many  as  ten  times  ?  "  —  "  Yes, 
«ir." —  "Then  I  shall  mark  you  zero,"  said  the  teacher  sternly, 
"  and  that  is  a  great  disgrace." 

"  Why,  I  did  not  see  you  whisper  once,"  said  John  after  school. 
"  Well,  I  did,"  said  Willie.  "  I  saw  others  doing  it,  and  so  I  asked 
to  borrow  a  book,  then  I  asked  a  boy  for  a  slate  pencil,  another  for 
a  knife,  and  I  did  several  such  things.  I  supposed  it  was  allowed." 
—  "  Oh,  we  all  do  it,"  said  Bert,  reddening.  "  There  isn't  any 
sense  in  the  old  rule,  and  nobody  can  keep  it ;  nobody  does."  — 
"  I  will,  or  else  I  will  say  I  haven't,"  said  Willie.  "  Do  you  sup- 
pose I  will  tell  ten  lies  in  one  heap  ?  "  —  "  Oh,  we  don't  call  them 
lies,"  muttered  John.  "  There  wouldn't  be  a  credit  among  us  at 
night  if  we  were  so  strict."  —  "  What  of  that,  if  you  tell  the  truth  ?  " 
said  Willie  bravely. 

In  a  short  time  the  boys  all  saw  how  it  was  with  Willie.  He 
studied  hard,  played  with  all  his  might  in  playtime,  but,  according 
to  his  reports,  he  lost  more  credits  than  any  of  the  rest.  After  some 
weeks,  the  boys  answered  "  Nine  "  and  "  Eight  "  oftener  than  they 
used  to ;  and  yet  the  schoolroom  seemed  to  have  grown  quieter. 
Sometimes,  when  Willie  Grant's  mark  was  even  lower  than  usual, 
the  teacher  would  smile  peculiarly,  but  said  no  more  of  disgrace. 
Willie  never  preached  at  them  or  told  tales  ;  but  somehow  it  made 
the  boys  ashamed  of  themselves,  to  see  that  this  sturdy,  blue-eyed 
Scotch  boy  must  tell  the  truth.  It  was  putting  the  clean  cloth  by 
the  half-soiled  one,  you  see ;  and  they  felt  like  cheats  and  story- 
tellers. They  talked  him  all  over,  and  loved  him,  if  they  did  nick- 
name him  "  Scotch  Granite,"  he  was  so  firm  about  a  promise. 

At  the  end  of  the  term,  Willie's  name  was  very  low  down  on  he 
credit  list.  When  it  was  read,  he  had  hard  work  not  to  cry  ;  for  he 
was  very  sensitive,  and  had  tried  hard  to  be  perfect.  But  the  very 
last  thing  that  closing  day  was  a  speech  by  the  teacher,  who  told  of 


264  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

once  seeing  a  man  muffled  up  in  a  cloak.     He  was  passing  him  with- 
out a  look,  when  he  was  told  that  the  man  was  Gen. ,  the  great 

hero.  "The  signs  of  his  rank  were  hidden,  but  the  hero  was 
there,"  said  the  teacher.  "  And  now,  boys,  you  will  see  what  I 
mean,  when  I  give  a  present  to  the  most  faithful  boy  in  school,  the 
one  who  really  stands  highest  in  deportment.  Who  shall  have  it  ?  " 
"  Little  Scotch  Granite  !  "  shouted  forty  boys  at  once ;  for  the 
boy  whose  name  was  so  low  on  the  credit  list  had  made  truth  noble 
in  their  eyes. 

BRITISH  EVANGELIST. 

This  above  all,  —  to  thine  own  self  be  true  ; 
And  it  must  follow,  as  the  night  the  day, 
Thou  canst  not  then  be  false  to  any  man. 

SHAKESPEARE. 

Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise ; 
Act  well  your  part ;  there  all  the  honor  lies. 

POPE. 

And  he  that  does  one  fault  at  first, 
And  lies  to  hide  it,  makes  it  two. 

ALICE  GARY. 

Denying  a  fault  doubles  it. 

[SBLF-CONTROL.] 

26.  THE  ECHO. 

Little  Peter  had  never  heard  of  the  Echo  which  lives  among  the 
woods  and  rocks,  and  repeats  the  very  words  we  speak.  One  day 
while  walking  in  a  field  near  a  wood,  he  saw  a  squirrel  running 
among  the  bushes.  "  Ho  !  Stop  there  !  "  he  cried.  Something 
in  the  woods  answered  him  back,  "  Ho  !  Stop  there  !  "  Aston- 
ished, Peter  shouted  out,  "  Who  are  you  ?  "  The  word  came  back, 
"  Who  are  you  ?  "  —  "  You  are  a  fool,"  he  answered.  "  You  are  a 
fool,"  was  echoed  back  loud  and  clear  from  the  wood.  Peter  grew 
angry,  for  he  thought  some  saucy  boy  was  hidden  behind  the  trees. 
Then  he  poured  out  all  the  hard  ugly  names  he  could  think  of,  but 
the  Echo  sent  them  all  back  to  him  in  mocking  tones. 

"  He  shall  learn  not  to  call  me  names,"  he  said  to  himself,  as  he 
picked  up  a  stick  and  ran  toward  the  wood.  Peter  wandered  in  the 
wood  a  long  time,  but  found  no  one.  Tired  and  vexed,  he  went 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  26$ 

home  and  complained  to  his  mother  that  a  naughty  boy,  who  had 
been  calling  him  names,  was  hiding  in  the  wood. 

"  You  have  been  angry  with  your  own  self,"  said  his  mother. 
"  It  was  only  your  own  voice  that  made  the  sound,  and  you  heard 
only  the  echo  of  your  own  words.  If  you  had  spoken  kind  words, 
kind  words  would  have  come  back  to  you  from  the  wood." 

How  happy  is  he  born  or  taught, 
Whose  passions  not  his  master  are ; 
Lord  of  himself,  though  not  of  lands, 
And  having  nothing,  yet  hath  all. 

SIR  HENRY  WOTTON. 

He  that  is  slow  to  anger  is  better  than  the  mighty. 
Think  twice  before  you  speak. 

[REPUTATION.] 

27.  VALUE  OF  A  GOOD  NAME. 

Just  as  the  Civil  War  commenced,  soldiers  were  enlisting,  and 
going  away  from  almost  every  home  in  the  land.  A  young  man 
had  volunteered,  and  was  expecting  daily  to  be  ordered  to  the  seat 
of  war.  One  day  his  mother  gave  him  an  unpaid  bill  with  the 
money,  and  asked  him  to  pay  it.  When  he  returned  home  at  night, 
she  said,  "  Did  you  pay  that  bill,  George  ? "  —  "  Yes,"  he  answered, 
"  I  paid  it."  In  a  few  days  the  bill  was  sent  in  a  second  time.  "  I 
thought,"  said  she  to  her  son,  "  that  you  paid  this."  —  "I  really 
do  not  remember,  mother;  you  know,  I've  so  many  things  on 
my  mind."  —  "  But  you  said  you  paid  it."  —  "  Well,"  he  answered, 
"  if  I  said  I  paid  it,  I  did." 

He  went  away  to  his  company,  and  his  mother  went  herself  to  the 
store.  "  I  am  quite  sure,"  she  said  to  the  merchant,  "  that  my  son 
paid  this  bill  some  days  ago.  He  has  been  very  busy  since,  and 
has  quite  forgotten  about  it,  but  he  told  me  that  he  had  paid  it 
the  day  I  gave  him  the  money ;  and  he  says,  if  he  said  then  that 
he  had  paid  it,  he  is  quite  sure  that  he  did."  —  "  Well,"  said  the 
merchant,  "  I  forgot  about  it ;  but,  if  your  son  ever  said  he  paid  it, 
he  did.  I  have  known  George  all  his  life,  and  his  word  is  as 
good  with  me  as  a  receipt." 

DEWEY'S  ETHICS. 


266  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Reputation  is  what  men  and  women  think  of  us :  character  is 
what  God  and  angels  know  of  us. 

He  who  saves  another's  character  is  a  greater  benefactor  than  he 
who  saves  his  life.  —  HORACE  MANN. 

A  good  name  is  rather  to  be  chosen  than  great  riches. 

9 


[BAD  LANGUAGE.] 

28.  PROFANITY  GENTLY  REPROVED. 

It  is  related  that  the  excellent  John  Wesley,  having  to  travel  some 
distance  in  a  stagecoach,  was  thereby  brought  into  the  company  of 
an  intelligent  and  gentlemanly  officer  of  the  British  Army.  The 
officer  was  very  social  with  his  traveling  companions ;  but  the  enjoy- 
ment, which  his  society  would  otherwise  have  afforded  to  those  with 
him,  was  sadly  lessened  by  the  profane  expressions  he  used. 

While  stopping  at  a  station,  Mr.  Wesley  called  the  officer  to  one 
side,  and,  after  expressing  the  satisfaction  he  had  enjoyed  in  his 
company,  told  him  he  felt  encouraged  to  ask  of  him  a  very  great 
favor.  "  I  shall  take  great  pleasure  in  obliging  you,"  replied  the 
officer,  "  as  I  am  certain  you  would  not  make  an  unreasonable 
request."  —  "  Then,"  said  Mr.  Wesley,  "  as  we  are  to  travel  to- 
gether for  some  days,  I  beg  that  if  I  should  so  far  forget  myself  as 
to  use  any  profane  language,  you  will  kindly  reprove  trie."  The 
officer  immediately  perceived  how  faithfully  and  how  delicately  his 
own  conduct  stood  reproved,  and,  smiling,  said,  "  No  one  but  Mr. 
Wesley  could  administer  reproof  in  such  manner." 

If  you  want  an  honored  name, 
If  you  want  a  spotless  fame, 
Let  your  words  be  kind  and  pure, 
And  your  tower  shall  endure. 

Profanity  never  did  any  man  the  least  good.  No  one  is  richer, 
happier,  or  wiser  for  it.  It  recommends  no  one  to  society ;  it  is 
disgusting  to  refined  people,  and  abominable  to  the  good.  —  ANON. 

Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  267 

[EVIL  SPEAKING.] 

29.   THE  SLANDERER. 

A  lady  visited  St.  Philip  Neri  on  one  occasion,  accusing  herself 
of  being  a  slanderer. 

"  Do  you  frequently  fall  into  this   fault  ?  "  he  inquired. 

"  Yes,  very  often,"  replied  the  penitent. 

"  My  dear  child,"  said  Philip,  "  your  fault  is  great,  but  the 
mercy  of  God  is  greater.  I  now  bid  you  do  as  follows  :  Go  to  the 
nearest  market  and  purchase  a  chicken  just  killed  and  covered  with 
'feathers ;  then  walk  to  a  certain  distance,  plucking  the  bird  as 
you  go.  Your  walk  finished,  you  return  to  me." 

The  woman  did  as  directed,  and  returned,  anxious  to  know  the 
meaning  of  so  singular  an  injunction. 

"  You  have  been  very  faithful  to  the  first  part  of  my  orders," 
said  Philip  ;  "  now  do  the  second  part,  and  you  will  be  cured. 
Retrace  your  steps,  pass  through  all  the  places  you  have  traversed, 
and  gather  up  one  by  one  all  the  feathers  you  have  scattered." 

"  But,"  said  the  woman,  "  I  cast  the  feathers  carelessly  away, 
and  the  wind  carried  them  in  all  directions." 

"  Well,  my  child,"  replied  Philip,  "  so  it  is  with  your  words  of 
slander.  Like  the  feathers  which  the  wind  has  scattered,  they  have 
been  wafted  in  many  directions  :  call  them  back  now  if  you  can. 
Go,  and  sin  no  more." 

Good  name,  in  man  or  woman,  dear  my  lord, 

Is  the^mmediate  jewel  of  their  souls. 

Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash  ;  'tis  something,  nothing ; 

'Twas  mine,  'tis  his,  and  has  been  slave  to  thousands ; 

But  he  that  filches  from  me  my  good  name, 

Robs  me  of  that  which  not  enriches  him, 

And  makes  me  poor  indeed. 

SHAKESPEARE. 

Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness  against  thy  neighbor. 

[CIVIL   DUTIES.] 

30.    AN  OATH. 

The  virtue  of  the  ancient  Athenians  is  very  remarkable,  as  was 
exhibited  in  the  case  of  Euripides.  This  great  poet,  though  famous 


268  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

for  the  morality  of  his  plays,  had  introduced  a  person,  who,  being 
reminded  of  an  oath  he  had  taken,  replied,  "  I  swore  with  my 
mouth,  but  not  with  my  heart."  The  impiety  of  this  sentiment  set 
the  audience  in  an  uproar;  made  Socrates  (though  an  intimate 
friend  of  the  poet)  leave  the  theater  with  indignation ;  and  gav* 
so  great  offense,  that  Euripides  was  publicly  accused  and  brought 
upon  his  trial,  as  one  who  had  suggested  an  evasion  of  what  was 
held  to  be  the  most  holy  and  indissoluble  bond  of  human  society. 
So  jealous  were  these  virtuous  heathen  of  the  slightest  hint  that 
might  open  the  way  to  the  violation  of  an  oath. 

Every  instance  of  violated  conscience,  like  every  broken  string 
in  a  harp,  will  limit  the  compass  of  its  music,  and  mar  its  harmo- 
nies forever.  —  HORACE  MANN. 

He  is  a  freeman  whom  the  truth  makes  free, 
And  all  are  slaves  beside. 

COWPER. 

A  just  man  ivalketh  in  his  integrity. 


3 1 .    PATRIOTISM. 
Stories  :  — 

Leonidas,  Arnold  Winkelried, 

Paul  Revere,  Nathan  Hale, 

Liberty  Bell,  etc. 

Breathes  there  a  man  with  soul  so  dead, 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said, 
"  This  is  my  own,  my  native  land  "  ! 
Whose  heart  hath  ne'er  within  him  burned, 
As  home  his  footsteps  he  hath  turned 
From  wandering  on  a  foreign  strand  ? 
If  such  there  breathe,  go,  mark  him  well, 
For  him  no  minstrel  raptures  swell. 

SCOTT. 

Flag  of  the  free  heart's  hope  and  home, 
By  angel  hands  to  valor  given, 
Thy  stars  have  lit  the  welkin  dome, 
And  all  thy  hues  were  born  in  heaven. 

DRAKE. 


MATERIALS  FOR   MORAL   LESSONS.  269 

Such  is  the  patriot's  boast  where'er  we  roam ; 
His  first,  best  country  ever  is  at  home.     . 

GOLDSMITH. 

The  warrior  took  that  banner  proud, 
And  it  was  his  martial  cloak  and  shroud. 

LONGFELLOW. 

One  flag,  one  land,  one  heart,  one  hand, 
One  nation  evermore. 

HOLMES. 

For  our  country  ''tis  a  bliss  to  die. 


2  /O  SCHO  OL    MA  NA  GEMENT. 

MISCELLANEOUS  STORIES.1 
i.   CLEAN  HANDS. 

A  dervise  of  great  sanctity  one  morning  had  the  misfortune,  as 
he  took  up  a  crystal  cup  which  was  consecrated  to  the  Prophet,  to 
let  it  fall  on  the  ground,  breaking  it  into  pieces.  His  son  coming  in 
some  time  after,  he  stretched  out  his  hand  to  bless  him,  as  his  man- 
ner was  every  morning;  but  the  youth,  going  out,  stumbled  over 
the  threshold  and  broke  his  arm.  As  the  old  man  wondered  at 
these  events,  a  caravan  passed  by  on  its  way  to  Mecca.  The  der- 
vise approached  it  to  beg  a  blessing ;  but,  as  he  stroked  one  of  the 
holy  camels,  he  received  a  kick  from  the  beast  which  sorely  bruised 
him.  His  sorrow  and  amazement  increased  on  him,  until  he  recol- 
lected, that,  through  hurry  and  inadvertency,  he  had  that  morning 
come  abroad  without  washing  his  hands.  —  ROYAL  SERIES 

2.   ACT  THE  TRUTH. 

A  groom,  whose  business  it  was  to  take  care  of  a  certain  horse, 
let  the  animal  go  loose  in  the  field.  After  a  while  he  wanted  to 
catch  him ;  but  the  horse  chose  to  run  about  rather  than  be  shut  up 
in  the  stable ;  and  so  he  pranced  about  the  field,  and  kept  out  of 
the  groom's  way. 

The  groom  now  went  to  the  barn  and  got  the  measure  with  which 
he  was  wont  to  bring  the  horse  his  oats.  When  the  horse  saw  the 
measure,  he  thought  the  groom  surely  had  some  oats  for  him ;  and 
so  he  went  up  to  him,  and  was  caught  and  taken  to  the  stable. 

On  another  day  the  horse  was  in  the  field,  and  refused  to  be 
caught.  So  the  groom  again  got  the  measure,  and  held  it  out, 
inviting  the  horse  to  come  to  it.  But  the  animal  shook  his  head, 
saying,  "  Nay,  Master  Groom ;  you  told  me  a  lie  the  other  day,  and 
I  am  not  so  silly  as  to  be  cheated  a  second  time  by  you." 

"  But,"  said  the  groom,  "  I  did  not  tell  you  a  lie  :  I  only  held  out 

1  For  additional  stories  for  moral  instruction,  teachers  are  referred  to  Stories  for 
Moral  Lessons,  being  prepared  under  author's  supervision ;  Stories  for  Home  and  School, 
by  Julia  M.  Dewey  (Educational  Publishing  Company);  Cowdrey's  Moral  Lessons 
(Cowperthwait  &  Co.). 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL  LESSONS.  2/1 

the  measure,  and  you  thought  it  was  full  of  oats.     I  did  not  tell  you 
there  were  oats  in  it." 

"Your  excuse  is  worse  than  the  cheat  itself,"  said  the  horse. 
"  You  held  out  the  measure,  and  thereby  did  as  much  as  to  say, 
'  I  have  some  oats  for  you.'  Actions  speak  louder  than  words." 


3.   UNSELFISH  FRANCES.* 

At  a  time  of  great  scarcity  in  Germany,  a  certain  rich  man  invited 
twenty  poor  children  to  his  house,  and  said  to  them,  "In  this  bas- 
ket there  is  a  loaf  of  bread  for  each  of  you ;  take  it,  and  come  again 
every  day  at  this  hour  till  God  sends  us  better  times." 

The  children  seized  upon  the  basket,  wrangled  and  fought  for 
the  bread,  as  each  wished  to  get  the  best  and  largest  loaf ;  and  at 
last  they  went  away  without  even  thanking  him. 

Frances  alone,  a  poor  but  neatly  dressed  child,  stood  modestly 
at  a  distance,  took  the  smallest  loaf  which  was  left  in  the  basket, 
thanked  the  gentleman,  and  went  home  in  a  quiet  and  orderly 
manner. 

On  the  following  day  the  children  were  just  as  ill-behaved ;  and 
poor  Frances  this  time  received  a  loaf  which  was  scarcely  half  the 
size  of  the  rest ;  but  when  she  came  home,  and  her  mother  began 
to  cut  the  bread,  there  fell  out  of  it  a  number  of  bright  new  silver 
pieces. 

Her  mother  was  perplexed  and  said,  "  Take  back  the  money  this 
instant ;  for  it  has  no  doubt  got  into  the  bread  through  some  mis- 
take." 

Frances  carried  it  back.  But  the  benevolent  man  said,  "  No, 
no  !  it  was  no  mistake.  I  had  the  money  baked  in  the  smallest 
loaf  in  order  to  reward  you,  my  dear  child.  Remember  that  the 
person  who  is  contented  with  the  smallest  loaf,  rather  than  quarrel 
for  the  larger  one,  will  find  blessings  still  more  valuable  than  money 
baked  in  bread." 


4.   DOING  AN  ANGEL'S  WORK. 

A  poor  tired  woman  with  three  little  children  entered  a  handsome 
palace  car.     A  look  of  relief  crept  into  her  face  as  she  seated  her- 


2/2  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

self  in  one  of  the  luxurious  chairs ;  but  it  quickly  vanished  when 
the  porter  came  and  rudely  asked  her  to  leave. 

As  the  frightened  group  hurried  into  the  next  car,  a  little  boy 
said  to  a  richly  dressed  lady  beside  him,  "  Auntie,  I  am  going  to 
take  this  fruit  and  these  sandwiches  to  that  poor  woman."  —  "  You 
may  need  them  yourself,  my  dear,"  said  the  lady.  "  No,  I'll  not 
need  them,"  said  the  boy.  "  You  know  I  ate  a  hearty  breakfast, 
and  I  shall  not  need  a  lunch.  They  all  look  so  hungry."  The 
lady  smiled  as  the  boy  picked  up  the  lunch  basket  and  went  into 
the  next  car. 

The  woman  and  her  children  were,  indeed,  very  hungry,  having 
had  no  breakfast ;  and  the  boy's  lunch  was  received  with  a  hearty 
"  God  bless  you  !  "  As  the  boy  was  leaving  the  car  with  his  empty 
basket,  the  oldest  child  said  to  her  mother,  "  Mamma,  is  that  good 
boy  an  angel  ? "  —  "  Oh,  no  !  "  answered  the  mother,  "  but  he  is 
doing  an  angel's  work." 

5.  WHERE  TOM  FOUND  HIS  MANNERS. 

One  morning  Tom  was  playing  with  his  dog  on  the  beautiful  and 
well-kept  lawn  that  surrounded  his  home.  His  father  was  wealthy, 
and  Tom  had  every  comfort  in  life ;  but  he  was  very  proud  and 
selfish,  and  felt  superior  to  all  others  on  account  of  his  good  clothes 
and  fine  playthings.  He  was  near  the  front  gate  when  a  ragged, 
barefooted  boy  came  along,  carrying  a  bucket  of  blackberries.  He 
politely  asked  Tom  for  a  drink  of  water,  but  Tom  very  rudely  re- 
fused, and  called  him  a  beggar.  He  threatened  to  set  his  dog  on 
him  if  he  did  not  go  away  at  once. 

When  the  boy  had  gone,  Tom  thought  that  he  would  go  for 
blackberries,  and  so  he  went  into  the  house  and  got  a  basket.  To 
get  to  the  blackberry  patch  he  had  to  jump  a  ditch.  In  doing  so, 
he  fell  in,  and  sank  to  his  knees  in  the  mud. 

He  called  for  help,  and  directly  the  boy  whom  he  had  insulted 
came  along.  Tom  asked  pardon  for  his  rudeness,  and  offered  him 
money  if  he  would  help  him  out.  The  boy  refused  the  money,  but 
kindly  helped  him  out.  Tom  felt  ashamed,  and  had  to  confess  that 
fine  clothes  do  not  make  fine  children.  He  took  the  boy  home 
and  gave  him  a  ride  on  his  pony.  After  this,  Tom  was  more  polite 
and  kind,  and  often  said  that  he  found  his  manners  in  the  ditch. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL  LESSONS. 


6.  GOOD  FOR  EVIL. 

In  one  of  the  Eastern  States  there  were  two  farmers  who  lived 
near  neighbors,  and  whose  farms  were  side  by  side.  One  of  these 
farmers  was  a  good  man  of  gentle  disposition  and  kindness  of  heart. 
The  character  of  the  other  was  the  reverse  of  this.  His  temper  was 
like  tinder,  taking  fire  at  every  spark  that  came  in  his  way.  He 
hated  his  kind  neighbor,  more  perhaps  on  account  of  his  goodness 
than  anything  else.  He  was  always  vexing  and  tormenting  the 
good  man,  quarreling  about  trifles,  as  much  as  one  can  quarrel  who 
has  no  one  to  quarrel  with  him. 

One  summer  he  had  mowed  down  a  good  deal  of  grass,  and  had 
gone  away  from  home,  leaving  it  in  the  field  to  dry.  While  he  was 
absent,  there  came  up  a  storm  of  rain.  The  clouds  were  gathering, 
and  the  good  man  saw  the  exposed  condition  of  his  neighbor's 
hay,  and  it  struck  him  that  there  was  a  fine  chance  to  show  a  Chris- 
tian's revenge  by  returning  good  for  evil.  So  he  took  with  him  his 
hired  man,  and  got  his  neighbor's  hay  safely  into  the  barn. 

When  the  quarrelsome  man  came  home  expecting  to  see  his  hay 
all  soaked  with  rain,  and  found  it  had  been  taken  care  of  by  the 
man  he  had  so  much  injured,  it  cut  him  to  the  very  quick.  From 
that  hour,  the  evil  spirit  was  cast  out  of  him.  No  more  abuse  did 
he  give  the  good  man  after  that  ;  but  he  became  as  obliging  and 
kind  to  his  pious  neighbor  as  the  latter  had  been  to  him. 


7.   How  TO  BE  THANKFUL. 

An  old  Scotchman  was  taking  his  grain  to  a  mill  in  sacks  thrown 
across  the  back  of  his  horse.  His  horse  stumbled,  and  the  grain 
fell  to  the  ground.  What  was  to  be  done  ?  The  man  was  old,  and 
not  able  to  put  the  sacks  on  his  horse's  back  without  aid.  He 
looked  about  him,  but  no  house  was  in  sight. 

By  and  by  he  saw  a  horseman  riding  along  the  road  toward  him. 
"  I  will  ask  the  rider  to  help  me,"  thought  the  old  man.  But  the 
horseman  proved  to  be  a  nobleman  who  lived  in  a  castle  not  far 
away.  The  farmer  could  hardly  think  of  asking  a  favor  of  him. 

When  he  rode  up,  he  said,  "  Good-morning,  John !  You  seem 
to  be  in  trouble."  —  "Yes,  sir,"  said  the  farmer.  "As  I  was 
coming  along,  my  horse  stumbled,  and  the  sacks  fell  off."  —  "  Well, 


274  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

we  can  soon  fix  that,"  was  the  reply.  Without  being  asked,  he  dis. 
mounted  and  helped  the  farmer  lift  the  sacks  to  the  horse's  back. 
When  they  had  finished  the  job,  the  farmer  asked,  "  How  shall  I 
ever  thank  you,  sir,  for  your  kindness?"  —  "Very  easily,  John," 
replied  the  nobleman.  "  Whenever  you  see  another  man  in  the 
same  plight  as  you  were  just  now,  help  him,  and  that  will  be 
thanking  me."  MODERN  READER. 


8.  SAVED  BY  KINDNESS. 

A  Southern  lady  of  large  fortune  would  never  see  a  human  being 
suffer  without  attempting  relief.  Riding  in  the  country  one  day,  she 
saw  a  young  man  drunk.  His  face  was  covered  with  flies,  and  the 
hot  sun  beat  upon  him.  She  stopped  her  carriage  and  looked  on 
the  prostrate  form  before  her.  The  young  man  was  well  dressed, 
and  evidently  accustomed  to  good  society.  She  dipped  her  hand- 
kerchief in  a  stream  near  by,  wiped  his  face,  covered  it  with  her 
handkerchief,  and  drove  back  to  town,  and  notified  the  police. 

A  week  afterward  a  stranger  called  and  wanted  to  speak  with  her. 
"  I  am  ashamed  to  say,"  he  said,  "  I  am  the  young  man  you  cared 
for  the  other  day,  and  your  name  on  the  handkerchief,  which  you 
put  over  my  face,  enables  me  to  thank  you  personally  for  your  kind- 
ness. I  have  signed  a  pledge  with  my  hand  on  my  mother's  Bible, 
that  I  will  never  taste  another  drop  of  intoxicating  liquor." 

That  vow  he  never  broke.  Prominent  in  Church  and  State,  he 
became  one  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  the  nation. 


9.  A  RUSSIAN  FABLE. 

A  peasant  was  one  day  driving  some  geese  to  town,  where  he 
hoped  to  sell  them.  He  had  a  long  stick  in  his  hand,  and  drove 
them  pretty  fast.  But  the  geese  did  not  like  to  be  hurried,  and, 
happening  to  meet  a  traveler,  they  poured  out  their  complaints 
against  the  peasant  who  was  driving  them. 

"  Where  can  you  find  geese  more  unhappy  than  we  ?  See  how 
this  peasant  is  hurrying  on,  this  way  and  that,  and  driving  us  just 
as  though  we  were  only  common  geese.  Ignorant  fellow!  He 
never  thinks  how  he  is  bound  to  respect  us,  for  we  are  the  descend- 
ants of  the  very  geese  that  saved  Rome  so  many  years  ago." 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  2?$ 

"  But  for  what  do  you  expect  to  be  famous  yourselves  ?"  asked 
the  traveler. 

"  Because  our  ancestors  "  — 

"  Yes,  I  know.  I  have  read  all  about  it.  What  I  want  to  know 
is  what  good  have  you  yourselves  done  ?  " 

"  Why,  our  ancestors  saved  Rome." 

"  Yes,  yes ;  but  what  have  you  done  ?  " 

"We?     Nothing." 

"  Of  what  good  are  you,  then  ?  Do  leave  your  ancestors  at 
peace  !  They  were  honored  for  their  deeds  ;  but  you,  my  friends, 
are  only  fit  for  roasting." 


10.   STOOP  AS  You  GO  THROUGH. 

Benjamin  Franklin,  the  son  of  a  tallow-chandler,  the  printer's 
apprentice,  the  printer,  the  philosopher,  and  the  patriot,  wrote  the 
following  incident  of  his  visit,  when  a  young  man,  to  the  celebrated 
Cotton  Mather,  a  clergyman  of  New  England.  The  letter  was 
written  to  Cotton  Mather's  son. 

"  The  last  time  I  saw  your  father  was  in  the  beginning  of  1 724, 
when  I  visited  him  after  my  first  trip  to  Pennsylvania.  He  received 
me  in  the  library,  and,  on  my  taking  leave,  showed  me  a  shorter 
way  out  of  the  house,  through  a  narrow  passage,  which  was  crossed 
by  a  beam  overhead.  We  were  still  talking  as  I  withdrew,  he 
accompanying  me  behind,  and  I  turning  partly  toward  him,  when 
he  said  hastily,  '  Stoop,  stoop ! '  I  did  not  understand  him  till  I 
felt  my  head  hit  against  the  beam.  He  was  a  man  that  never 
missed  any  occasion  of  giving  instruction;  and,  upon  this,  he  said, 
'  You  are  young,  and  have  the  world  before  you.  Stoop  as  you  go 
through  it,  and  you  will  miss  many  hard  thumps.'  This  advice, 
thus  beat  into  my  head,  has  frequently  been  of  use  to  me ;  and  I 
often  think  of  it  when  I  see  pride  mortified,  and  misfortunes  brought 
upon  people  by  carrying  their  heads  too  high."  Before  honor  is 
humility. 

n.   SPARE  MOMENTS. 

A  boy,  poorly  dressed,  came  to  the  door  of  the  princioal  of  a 
celebrated  school  one  morning,  and  asked  to  see  him.  The  ser- 


2/6  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

vant  eyed  his  mean  clothes,  and,  thinking  he  looked  more  like  a 
beggar  than  anything  else,  told  him  to  go  round  to  the  kitchen. 

"  I  should  like  to  see  Mr. ,"  he  said. 

"  You  want  a  breakfast,  more  like." 

"  Can  I  see  Mr. ?  "  asked  the  boy. 

"  Well,  he  is  in  the  library ;  if  he  must  be  disturbed,  he  must." 

So  she  bade  him  follow.  After  talking  awhile,  the  principal  put 
aside  the  volume  he  was  studying,  and  took  up  some  Greek  books 
and  began  to  examine  the  new-comer.  Every  question  he  asked, 
the  boy  answered  readily. 

"  Upon  my  word,"  said  the  principal,  "  you  do  well.  Why,  my 
boy,  where  did  you  pick  up  so  much  ?  " 

"  In  my  spare  moments,"  answered  the  boy. 

He  was  a  hard-working  lad,  yet  had  almost  fitted  for  college  by 
simply  improving  his  spare  moments.  A  few  years  later,  he  be- 
came known  the  world  over  as  a  celebrated  scholar  and  author. 
What  account  can  you  give  of  your  spare  moments  ? 

12.   HONESTY  THE  BEST  POLICY. 

A  clergyman  in  England,  with  a  large  family  and  a  small  salary, 
once  found  a  purse  of  gold,  which  he  carried  home,  and,  being 
distressed  for  the  want  of  money,  was  almost  persuaded  to  use 
some  of  it ;  but  he  refrained,  alleging  that  "  honesty  is  the  best 
policy,"  and  that  it  was  his  duty  to  try  and  find  the  owner.  This 
he  soon  did ;  but  the  owner  only  gave  him  thanks  as  his  reward, 
which  exposed  the  good  man  to  some  reproaches  from  his  family. 

A  few  months  afterward,  however,  the  same  gentleman  sent  for 
the  clergyman  to  dinner,  and  presented  to  him  a  church  with  a 
salary  of  three  hundred  pounds  a  year,  and  fifty  pounds -for  present 
use.  He  went  home  to  his  family  with  joy ;  and  they  agreed,  with 
him,  that  in  the  end  "  honesty  is  the  best  policy." 


13.   LEND  A  HAND. 

Washington  one  day  came  across  a  small  band  of  soldiers  work- 
ing very  hard  at  raising  some  military  works,  under  the  command 
of  a  pompous  little  officer,  who  was  issuing  his  orders  in  a  very 
peremptory  style  indeed.  Washington  seeing  the  arduous  task  of 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS. 

the  men,  dismounted  from  his  horse,  lent  a  helping  hand,  perspir- 
ing freely,  till  the  weight  at  which  they  were  working  was  raised. 
Then  turning  to  the  officer,  he  inquired  why  he,  too,  had  not 
helped,  and  received  the  indignant  reply,  "  Don't  you  know  I'm 
the  corporal  ?  "  "  Ah,  well,"  said  Washington,  "  next  time  your 
men  are  raising  so  heavy  a  weight,  send  for  your  commander-in- 
chief ;  "  and  he  rode  off,  leaving  the  corporal  dumfounded.  — 
ROYAL  SERIES. 

14.   COURAGE  IN  DANGER. 

One  day  in  the  year  1814  a  workman  hurried  into  Stephenson's 
cottage  with  the  startling  information  that  the  deepest  main  of  the 
colliery  was  on  fire.  Stephenson  immediately  hastened  to  the  pit- 
head, whither  the  women  and  children  of  the  colliery  were  running, 
with  terror  depicted  in  every  face.  In  a  commanding  voice,  Ste- 
phenson ordered  the  engineman  to  lower  him  down  the  shaft. 
There  was  danger  in  it ;  there  might  be  death  before  him,  but  he 
must  go.  He  was  soon  at  the  bottom,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  men, 
who  were  paralyzed  at  the  danger.  Leaping  from  the  corve,  he 
called  out,  "Are  there  six  men  among  you  who  have  the  courage 
to  follow  me  ?  If  so,  come,  and  we  will  put  out  the  fire."  The 
Killingworth  pitmen  readily  followed  him.  Silence  succeeded  the 
frantic  tumult  of  the  previous  minute,  and  the  men  set  to  work  with 
a  will.  In  every  mine,  bricks,  mortar,  and  tools  enough  are  at 
hand ;  and,  by  Stephenson's  directions,  the  materials  were  forth- 
with carried  to  the  required  spot,  where  in  a  very  short  time  a  wall 
was  raised  at  the  entrance  to  the  mine,  he  himself  taking  the  most 
active  part  in  the  work.  The  atmospheric  air  was  by  this  means 
excluded,  the  fire  was  extinguished,  most  of  the  people  in  the  pit 
were  saved  from  death,  and  the  mine  was  preserved.  —  SMILES. 

15.   A  MANLY  APOLOGY. 

The  late  Hon.  William  P.  Fessenden  once  made  a  remark  which 
was  understood  as  an  insult  to  Mr.  Seward.  When  informed  of 
it,  and  seeing  such  a  meaning  could  be  given  to  his  words,  he  in- 
stantly went  to  Mr.  Seward,  and  said,  "  Mr.  Seward,  I  have  insulted 
you :  I  am  sorry  for  it.  I  did  not  mean  it."  This  apology,  so 
prompt,  frank,  and  perfect,  so  delighted  Mr.  Seward,  that,  grasping 


2/8  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

him  by  the  hand,  he  exclaimed,  "  God  bless  you,  Fessenden !  I 
wish  you  would  insult  me  again."  Such  an  exhibition  of  real 
manliness  as  this  may  well  be  cited  as  worthy  of  the  imitation  of 
the  youth  of  the  land. 

1 6.  FIDELITY  IN  DUTY.* 

Calais  is  a  pleasant  seaport  town  of  France,  situated  on  the  Strait 
of  Dover.  Nearly  all  travelers  from  England  to  France,  and  from 
France  to  England,  pass  through  this  beautiful  town.  Near  the 
center  of  it  is  a  lighthouse,  one  hundred  and  eighteen  feet  high,  on 
which  is  placed  a  revolving  light,  which  can  be  seen  by  vessels  thirty 
miles  at  sea.  At  one  time  some  gentlemen  were  visiting  the  tower 
upon  which  the  light  is  placed,  when  the  watchman  who  has  charge 
of  the  burners  commenced  praising  their  brilliancy.  One  of  the 
gentlemen  then  said  to  him,  "What  if  one  of  the  lights  should 
chance  to  go  out  ?  "  —  "  Never !  Impossible  !  "  replied  the  watch- 
man with  amazement  at  the  bare  thought  of  such  neglect  of  duty. 
"  Sir,"  said  he,  pointing  to  the  ocean,  "  yonder,  where  nothing  can 
be  seen,  there  are  ships  going  to  every  part  of  the  world.  If  to- 
night one  of  my  burners  were  out,  within  six  months  would  come  a 
letter  —  perhaps  from  India,  perhaps  from  the  islands  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  perhaps  from  some  place  I  never  heard  of — saying  that  such 
a  night,  at  such  an  hour,  the  light  of  Calais  burned  dim ;  the  watch- 
man neglected  his  post,  and  vessels  were  in  danger.  Ah,  sir,  some- 
times on  dark  nights,  in  the  stormy  weather,  I  look  out  at  sea,  and 
I  feel  as  if  the  eyes  of  the  whole  world  were  looking  at  my  light ! 
My  light  go  out !  Calais  burners  grow  dim  !  No,  NEVER  ! " 

17.  WANT  OF  FIDELITY. 

A  few  years  ago,  the  keeper  of  a  life-saving  station  on  the  At- 
lantic coast  found  that  his  supply  of  powder  had  given  out.  The 
nearest  village  was  two  or  three  miles  distant,  and  the  weather  was 
inclement.  He  concluded  that  it  "  was  not  worth  while  to  go  so 
far  for  such  a  trifle."  That  night  a  vessel  was  wrecked  within  sight 
of  the  station.  A  line  could  have  been  given  to  the  crew  if  he  had 
been  able  to  use  the  mortar;  but  he  had  no  powder.  He  saw  the 
drowning  men  perish  one  by  one  in  his  sight,  knowing  that  he  alone 
was  to  blame.  A  few  days  afterwards  he  was  justly  dismissed  from 
the  service 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  2/9 

1 8.   THE  FROG  PRINCE  1  (Fairy  Tale). 

There  was  once  a  young  princess  who  was  so  beautiful  that  even 
the  Sun,  which  sees  so  many  things,  had  never  seen  anything  else 
so  beautiful.  A  golden  ball  was  her  favorite  plaything.  One  day 
as  she  sat  .by  a  well,  under  an  old  linden-tree,  she  tossed  the  ball 
into  the  air,  and  it  fell  into  the  well.  She  cried  bitterly  at  her  loss, 
and  presently  a  frog  put  his  ugly  head  out  of  the  water,  and  offered 
to  dive  for  the  ball,  but  on  condition  that  she  would  take  him  for 
her  playmate,  let  him  eat  off  her  golden  plate,  and  drink  out  ct 
her  golden  cup,  and  sleep  in  her  little  snow-white  bed.  The  little 
princess  promised  everything.  But  no  sooner  had  the  frog  brought 
her  the  golden  ball  than  she  ran  away,  heedless  of  his  cries. 

The  next  day  as  the  royal  family  sat  at  dinner,  a  knock  was  heard 
at  the  door.  The  princess  opened  the  door  and  beheld  the  ugly 
frog  claiming  admittance.  She  screamed  with  fright  and  hastily 
shut  the  door  in  his  face.  But  when  the  king,  her  father,  had 
questioned  her,  he  said,  "What  you  have  promised,  you  must 
keep ;  "  and  so  she  obeyed  her  father,  though  it  was  sorely  against 
her  inclination.  So  the  frog  was  brought  in  and  lifted  to  the  table, 
and  he  ate  off  the  little  princess's  golden  plate,  and  drank  out  of 
her  golden  cup.  When  he  had  eaten  enough,  he  said,  "  I  am  tired 
now ;  put  me  into  your  little  snow-white  bed."  But  the  princess 
refused,  and  again  the  king  said,  "  What  you  have  promised,  you 
must  keep.  He  helped  you  in  distress,  and  you  must  not  despise 
him  now."  And  so  the  ugly  frog  was  put  in  the  little  snow-white 
bed.  Soon  after  he  suddenly  changed  into  a  beautiful  prince ;  and 
the  little  princess  was  then  glad  not  only  to  welcome  him  as  her 
playmate,  but  later  as  her  royal  husband. 

BIBLE  STORIES.2 

Adam  and  Eve  in  Paradise  (Temptation  and  Fall).  —  Gen.  iii. 
Cain  and  Abel  (Jealousy).  —  Gen.  iv.  3-16. 
Abram  and  Lot  (Magnanimity).  —  Gen.  xiii. 

1  As  given  by  Mr.  Felix  Adler,  with  some  changes. 

8  No  stories  appeal  so  effectively  to  the  moral  nature  of  children  as  those  found  in 
the  Bible  ;  and  these  should  be  no  more  excluded  from  moral  instruction  than  those  found 
in  other  classic  literature.  The  teacher  will  need  to  use  good  judgment  in  the  selection  of 
the  parts  of  the  story  to  be  read  in  a  given  lesson.  The  story  should  be  used  for  moral 


28O  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT 

Hagar  and  Ishmael  (God's  Care).  —  Gen.  xxi.  9-21. 

Rebecca  at  the  Well  (Kindness).  —  Gen.  xxiv.  15-32,  50-61. 

Jacob's  Deceit.  —  Gen.  xxvii.  1-40. 

Esau's  Magnanimity.  —  Gen.  xxxiii.  I— 16. 

Joseph  sold  into  Egypt  (Envy).  —  Gen.  xxxvii. 

Joseph  in  Egypt. — Gen.  xxxix.  1-6;  xli.  38-50. 

Joseph  made  known  to  his  Brethren.  —  Gen.  xlv.  1-20. 

Childhood  of  Moses.  —  Exod.  i.  22;  ii.  i-io. 

The  Story  of  the  Spies.  — Num.  xiii.  1-3,  17-33. 

Naomi  and  Ruth.  —  Ruth  i.  1-18. 

David  and  Goliath.  —  i  Sam.  xvii.  32-58. 

David  and  Jonathan.  —  i  Sam.  xx. 

Absalom's  Rebellion.  — 2  Sam.  xv.  1-17. 

Death  of  Absalom  (Paternal  Love).  —  2  Sam.  xviii.  5-32. 

The  Good  Samaritan  (True  Charity).  —  Luke  x.  25-37. 

The  Prodigal  Son.  —  Luke  xv.  11-32. 

The  Sower.  —  Matt.  xiii.  3-9,  18-23. 

The  Talents.  —  Matt.  xxv.  14-30. 

The  Forgiven  Debtor.  —  Matt,  xviii.  23-35. 

The  Two  Sons  (Obedience).  —  Matt.  xxi.  28-32. 

The  Pharisee  and  the  Publican.  —  Luke  xviii.  9—14. 

The  Widow's  Two  Mites.  —  Luke  xxi.  1-4. 


FAIRY  AND  OTHER  CLASSIC  TALES. 

Cinderella  (True  Worth). 

Red  Riding  Hood  (Obedience  to  Parents). 

The  Twelve  Brothers  (Sisterly  Devotion). 

Snow-white  and  Red-Rose  (Kindness). 

The  House  in  the  Woods  (Kindness  to  Animals). 

The  Queen  Bee  (Kindness  Rewarded). 

Faithful  John  (Kindness  to  Servants). 

Snow-white  (Love  between  Brothers  and  Sisters). 

The  Dog  Sultan  (Fidelity). 

The  Merchant  of  Seri l  (Strength  of  Desire). 

1  This  and  the  five  following  stories  are  selected  from  the  Jataka  Tales.  The  author 
is  indebted  to  Mr.  Felix  Adler  (Moral  Instruction  of  Children,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.) 
for  these  tales,  and  also  for  helpful  discriminations  respecting  a  number  of  the  fairy 
tales  and  fables  herein  named  and  commended  for  use  in  schools. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  28 1 

Nanda  or  the  Buried  Gold  (Insolence). 

The  Sandy  Road  (Perseverance). 

The  Banyan  Deer  (Self-sacrifice). 

The  Three  Princes  (Goodness  Divine). 

The  Fowler  and  the  Quails  (Unity  or  Concord). 


FABLES. 

The  Lark  and  the  Farmer  (Self-reliance). 

The  Fox  and  the  Wolf  (Compassion). 

The  Rustic  and  the  Snake  (Ingratitude). 

The  Ant  and  the  Grasshopper  (Improvidence). 

The  Wind  and  the  Sun  (Gentleness). 

The  Stag  and  the  Fawn  (Cowardice). 

The  Peacock  and  the  Crane  (Vanity). 

The  Crow  and  the  Cheese  (Pride). 

The  Jackdaw  and  the  Peacocks  (Pretension). 

The  Ass  in  the  Lion's  Skin  (Pretension). 

The  Camel  and  the  Tent  (Selfishness). 

The  Porcupine  and  the  Snakes  (Selfishness). 

The  Wolf  in  Sheep's  Clothing  (Hypocrisy). 

The  Kite  and  the  Pigeons  (Credulity). 

The  Bundle  of  Sticks  (Concord). 

The  Hare  and  the  Tortoise  (Over  Self-confidence). 

The  Goose  that  laid  Golden  Eggs  (Avarice). 

The  Hawk  and  the  Pigeons  (Cruelty  to  Animals). 

The  Fowler  and  the  Ringdove  (Cruelty). 

The  Dog  and  his  Shadow  (Greediness). 

The  Peacock's  Complaint  (Discontent). 

The  Dog  in  the  Manger  (Selfish  Malice). 

The  Fox  without  a  Tail  (Deceit). 

Sour  Grapes  (Self-deceit). 

The  Blind  and  the  Lame  Man  (Mutual  Assistance). 

The  Peasant  and  his  Son  (Exaggeration). 

The  Camel  and  the  Jackal  (Hindu  Fable). 


282  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


LITERARY   GEMS.1 

I.  Children,  make  your  mother  happy, 

Many  griefs  she  has  to  bear ; 
And  she  wearies  'neath  her  burdens  — 
Can  you  not  those  burdens  share  ? 

ANON. 

2.  Little  moments  make  an  hour; 

Little  thoughts,  a  book ; 
Little  seeds,  a  tree  or  flower ; 

Water  drops,  a  brook  ; 
Little  deeds  of  faith  and  love 
Make  a  home  for  you  above. 

ANON. 

3.  Little  by  little  the  world  grows  strong, 
Fighting  the  battles  of  right  and  wrong ; 
Little  by  little  the  wrong  gives  way ; 
Little  by  little  the  right  has  sway ; 
Little  by  little  all  longing  souls 
Struggle  up  near  the  shining  goals. 

ANON. 

4.  Little  builders,  build  away ! 
Little  builders,  build  to-day ! 
Build  a  tower  pure  and  bright, 
Build  it  up  in  deeds  of  light. 

ANON. 

5.  No  matter  what  you  try  to  do, 

At  home  or  at  your  school, 
Always  do  your  very  best, 
There  is  no  better  rule. 

ANON. 

1  For  other  literary  selections,  see  Irish's  Treasured  Thoughts  (F.  V.  Irish,  Colum- 
bus, O.)>  and  Peaslee's  Graded  Selections  (American  Book  Company). 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL  LESSONS.  283 

6.  Work  while  you  work,  play  while  you  play ; 
This  is  the  way  to  be  cheerful  and  gay. 
All  that  you  do,  do  with  your  might ; 
Things  done  by  halves  are  never  done  right. 

Miss  STODDART. 

7.  When  you've  work  to  do, 

Do  it  with  a  will ; 
They  who  reach  the  top, 
First  must  climb  the  hill. 

Standing  at  the  foot, 

Gazing  at  the  sky, 
How  can  you  get  up, 

If  you  never  try  ? 

ANON. 

8.  Try  to  be  cheerful, 

Never  be  fearful, 
Or  think  that  the  sky  will  fall. 
Let  the  sky  tumble, 
Fear  not  the  rumble, 
It  never  can  hurt  you  at  all. 

ANON. 

9.  True  things  in  great  and  small, 
Then,  though  the  sky  should  fall, 
Sun,  moon,  and  stars,  and  all, 
Heaven  would  shine  through. 

ALICE  GARY. 

10.  Ring  in  new  school-books  and  new  toys  ; 
Ring  out  all  things  that  ruin  boys ; 
Ring  out  the  smoker  and  the  smoke ; 
Ring  out  old  habit's  ugly  yoke. 
Ring  out  the  swearer  from  the  street ; 
Ring  out  the  fighter  and  the  cheat ; 
Ring  out  the  child  that  doesn't  care ; 
Ring  in  good  children  everywhere. 

ANON. 


284  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

1 1 .  A  little  word  in  kindness  spoken, 

A  motion  or  a  tear, 

Has  often  healed  a  heart  that's  broken, 
And  made  a  friend  sincere. 

COLESWORTHY. 

12.  Speak  gently !  it  is  better  far 
To  rule  by  love  than  fear ; 
Speak  gently !  let  no  harsh  words  mar 
The  good  we  might  do  here. 

G.  W.  LANGFORD. 

13.  Kind  words  are  little  sunbeams, 

That  sparkle  as  they  fall ; 
And  loving  smiles  are  sunbeams, 
A  light  of  joy  to  all. 

ANON. 

14.  Cross  words  are  like  ugly  weeds; 
Pleasant  words  are  like  fair  flowers ; 
Let  us  sow  sweet  thoughts  for  seeds, 
In  these  garden  hearts  of  ours. 

ANON. 

15.  One  kindly  deed  may  turn 
The  fountain  of  thy  soul 

To  love's  sweet  day-star,  that  shall  o'er  thee  burn 
Long  as  its  currents  roll ! 

HOLMES. 

1 6.  Teach  me  to  feel  another's  woe, 

To  hide  the  fault  I  see ; 

The  mercy  I  to  others  show, 

That  mercy  show  to  me. 

POPE. 

1 7.  Speak  gently  to  the  erring ; 

Know  they  must  have  toiled  in  vain ; 
Perchance  unkindness  made  them  so ; 
Oh,  win  them  back  again. 

ANON. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  285 

1 8.  If  there  be  some  weaker  one, 
Give  me  strength  to  help  him  onv- 
If  a  blinder  soul  there  be, 

Let  me  guide  him  nearer  Thee. 

ALICE  GARY. 

19.  How  sweet  the  charm  of  courtesy, 
And  gracious  words  how  sweet ! 
No  virtue  of  the  soul  can  be 
Without  this  grace  complete. 

Its  fragrant  breath  befits  the  rose ; 
Such  pleasure  from  politeness  flows. 

JOHN  S.  VANCLEVE. 

20.  Look  for  goodness,  look  for  gladness ; 

You  will  meet  them  all  the  while. 
If  you  bring  a  smiling  visage 
To  the  glass,  you  meet  a  smile. 

ALICE  GARY. 

21.  Beautiful  eyes  are  those  that  show 
Beautiful  thoughts  that  burn  below ; 
Beautiful  lips  are  those  whose  words 
Leap  from  the  heart  like  song  of  birds ; 
Beautiful  hands  are  those  that  do 
Work  that  is  earnest,  brave,  and  true, 
Moment  by  moment,  the  whole  day  through. 

ANON. 

22.  He  liveth  long  who  liveth  well ; 

All  else  is  life  but  flung  away ; 
He  liveth  longest  who  can  tell 

Of  true  things  truly  done  each  day. 

Sow  love,  and  taste  its  fruitage  pure ; 

Sow  peace,  and  reap  its  harvest  bright ; 
Sow  sunbeams  on  the  rock  and  moor, 

And  find  a  harvest  home  of  light. 

H.  BONAR. 

23.  Work  for  the  good  that  is  nighest  r 

Dream  not  of  greatness  afar ; 
That  glory  is  ever  the  highest 

Which  shines  upon  men  as  they  are. 

PUNSHON. 


286  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT 

24.  Though  your  duty  may  be  hard, 

Look  not  on  it  as  an  ill ; 
If  it  be  an  honest  task, 
Do  it  with  an  honest  will. 

ANON. 

25.  Trip  lightly  over  trouble, 

Trip  lightly  over  wrong ; 
We  only  make  it  double 
By  dwelling  on  it  long. 

ANON. 

26.  There's  many  a  sorrow 
Would  vanish  to-morrow, 

Were  we  but  willing  to  furnish  the  wings. 

So  sadly  intruding, 

And  quietly  brooding, 
It  hatches  all  sorts  of  terrible  things. 

ANON. 

£7.    You  hear  that  boy  laughing  ?     You  think  he's  all  fun, 
But  the  angels  laugh,  too,  at  the  good  he  has  done ; 
The  children  laugh  loud  as  they  troop  to  his  call, 
And  the  poor  man  that  knows  him  laughs  loudest  of  all. 

HOLMES. 

zS.    Truth  forever  on  the  scaffold,  wrong  forever  on  the  throne ; 
Yet  that  scaffold  sways  the  future,  and,  behind  the  dim  unknown, 
Standeth  God  within  the  shadow,  keeping  watch  above  his  own. 

LOWELL. 

29.    Truth  crushed  to  earth  shall  rise  again, 

The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers ; 
But  Error  wounded  writhes  in  pain, 
And  dies  among  his  worshipers. 

BRYANT. 

30.    So  nigh  is  grandeur  to  our  dust, 

So  near  is  God  to  man, 
When  duty  whispers  low,  "  Thou  must" 
The  youth  replies,  "  /  <:««." 

EMERSON. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS,  28/ 

31.    I  count  this  thing  to  be  grandly  true, 

That  a  noble  deed  is  a  step  toward  God, 
Lifting  the  soul  from  the  common  sod 
To  purer  air  and  a  broader  view. 

HOLLAND. 


32.    I  hold  it.  truth  with  him  who  sings 

To  one  clear  harp  in  divers  tones, 
That  men  may  rise  on  stepping-stones 
Of  their  dead  selves  to  higher  things. 

TENNYSON. 


33.  Believe  not  each  accusing  tongue, 

As  most  weak  people  do ; 
But  still  believe  that  story  wrong 
Which  ought  not  to  be  true. 

SHERIDAN. 


34.  Don't  run  in  debt  —  never  mind,  never  mind, 
If  the  clothes  are  faded  and  torn : 
Fix  them  up,  make  them  do,  it  is  better  by  far 
Than  to  have  the  heart  weary  and  worn. 
Who'll  love  you  more  for  the  set  of  your  hat, 
Or  your  ruff,  or  the  tie  of  your  shoe, 
The  style  of  your  vest,  or  your  boots  or  cravat, 
If  they  know  you're  in  debt  for  the  new  ? 

ELIZA  COOK. 

35.  Do  not,  then,  stand  idly  waiting 
For  some  greater  work  to  do ; 
Fortune  is  a  lazy  goddess, 

She  will  never  come  to  you. 

Go  and  toil  in  any  vineyard, 

Do  not  fear  to  do  or  dare, 

If  you  want  a  field  of  labor, 

You  can  find  it  anywhere. 

ANON. 


288  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

36.  I  live  for  those  who  love  me, 

Whose  hearts  are  kind  and  true, 
For  the  heaven  that  smiles  above  me, 

And  awaits  my  spirit  too ; 
For  all  human  ties  that  bind  me, 
For  the  task  by  God  assigned  me, 
For  the  bright  hopes  left  behind  me, 
And  the  good  that  I  can  do. 

I  live  for  those  who  love  me, 

For  those  who  know  me  true, 
For  the  heaven  that  smiles  above  me, 

And  awaits  my  spirit  too ; 
For  the  cause  that  lacks  assistance, 
For  the  wrong  that  needs  resistance, 
For  the  future  in  the  distance, 

And  the  good  that  I  can  do. 

G.  L.  BANKS. 

37.  The  glory  of  the  deed  is  not  in  its  dreaming, 
Not  in  its  fancy,  however  so  fair ; 
The  glory  of  a  deed  is  in  its  doing, 
And  each  doing  makes  the  deed  more  rare. 

E.  E.  W. 

38.  For  right  is  right,  since  God  is  God, 

And  right  the  day  must  win ; 
To  doubt  would  be  disloyalty, 
To  falter  would  be  sin. 

FABER. 

39.  The  world  wants  men,  —  light-hearted,  manly  men : 
Men  who  shall  join  its  chorus  and  prolong 
The  psalm  of  labor  and  the  song  of  love. 

CHESTER. 

40.  To  all  the  world  I  give  my  hand ; 
My  heart  I  give  my  native  land, 
I  seek  her  good,  her  glory ; 
I  honor  every  nation's  name, 
Respect  their  fortune  and  their  fame, 
But  love  the  land  that  bore  me. 

ANON. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL  LESSONS.  289 

41.  Oh,  she's  a  fresh  and  fair  land, 
Oh,  she's  a  true  and  rare  land ! 
Yes,  she's  a  fair  and  rare  land,  — 
This  native  land  of  mine. 

ANON. 

42.  Great  deeds  cannot  die ; 

They  with  the  sun  and  moon  renew  their  light 
Forever,  blessing  those  that  look  on  them. 

TENNYSON. 

43.  True  dignity  abides  with  him  alone, 
Who,  in  the  patient  hour  of  silent  thought, 
Can  still  respect  and  still  revere  himself. 

WORDSWORTH. 

44.  The  pure  in  heart,  who  fear  to  sin, 
The  good,  kindly  in  word  and  deed, 
These  are  the  beings  in  the  world 
Whose  nature  should  be  called  divine. 

BUDDHA 

45.  Be  firm ;  one  constant  element  of  luck 
Is  genuine,  solid,  old  Teutonic  pluck. 
See  yon  tall  shaft ;  it  felt  the  earthquake's  thrill, 
Clung  to  its  base,  and  greets  the  sunrise  still. 

HOLMES. 

46.  Only  be  gentle-hearted ; 

Beauty  rich  and  wisdom  rare 
From  a  gentle  spirit  parted 

Earneth  hate  and  causeth  care. 

EDWIN  ARNOLD. 

47.  If  happiness  have  not  her  seat 

And  center  in  the  breast, 
We  may  be  wise,  or  rich,  or  great, 
But  never  can  be  blessed. 

BURNS. 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

48.  True  happiness 

Consists  not  in  the  multitude  of  friends, 
But  in  their  worth  and  choice. 

BEN  JONSON. 

49.  Of  all  bad  things  by  which  mankind  are  cursed, 
Their  own  bad  tempers  surely  are  the  worst. 

CUMBERLAND. 

50.  Have  more  than  thou  showest, 
Speak  less  than  thou  knowest. 

SHAKESPEARE. 

51.  Count  that  day  lost  whose  low-descending  sun 
Views  from  thy  hand  no  worthy  action  done. 

HOB  ART. 

52.  An  idJer  is  a  watch  that  wants  both  hands, 
As  useless  if  it  goes  as  if  it  stands. 

COWPER. 

53.  It  is  well  to  be  wise  and  great, 
'Tis  better  to  be  good. 

ANON. 

54.  Oh,  what  a  tangled  web  we  weave, 
When  first  we  practice  to  deceive ! 

SCOTT. 

55.  If  all  the  year  were  playing  holidays, 
To  sport  would  be  as  tedious  as  to  work. 

SHAKESPEARE. 

56.  Suspicion  always  haunts  the  guilty  mind ; 
The  thief  doth  fear  each  bush  an  officer. 

SHAKESPEARE. 

57.  What's  in  a  name?  that  which  we  call  a  rose, 
By  any  other  name  would  smell  as  sweet. 

SHAKESPEARE. 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAL   LESSONS.  29 1 

58.  He  that  complies  against  his  will 
Is  of  his  own  opinion  still. 

SAMUEL  BUTLER. 

59.  Immodest  words  admit  of  no  defense, 
For  want  of  decency  is  want  of  sense. 

ROSCOMMON. 

60.  The  flighty  purpose  never  is  o'ertook 
Unless  the  deed  go  with  it. 

SHAKESPEARE. 

61.  God's  ways  seem  dark,  but,  soon  or  late 
They  touch  the  shining  hills  of  day. 

WHITTIER. 

62.  When  the  shore  is  won  at  last, 
Who  will  count  the  billows  past  ? 

JOHN  LOCKE. 

BRIEF    SAYINGS. 

1 .  All  true  work  is  sacred ;  for  in  all  true  work,  were  it  but  true 
hand-labor,  there  is  something  of  divineness.     Labor,  wide  as  the 
earth,  has  its  summit  in  heaven.  —  CARLYLE. 

2.  Lost  yesterday,  somewhere  between  sunrise  and  sunset,  two 
golden  hours,  each  set  with  sixty  diamond  minutes.     No  reward  is 
offered,  for  they  are  gone  forever.  —  HORACE  MANN. 

3.  There  is  nothing  in  the  universe  that  I  fear,  except  that  I 
shall  not  know  all  my  duty,  or  shall  fail  to  do  it.  —  MARY  LYON. 

4.  Habit  is  a  cable.     We  weave  a  thread  for  it  each  day,  and  it 
becomes  so  strong  that  we  cannot  break  it.  —  HORACE  MANN. 

5.  Of  our  very  faults  we  make  ourselves  a  ladder,  if  only  we 
tread  them  under  our  feet.  —  ST.  AUGUSTINE. 

6.  All  things  come  round  to  him  who  will  but  wait.  —  LONG- 
FELLOW. 

7.  The  night  is  darkest  before  the  morn.  —  CHARLES  KINGSLEY. 

8.  Good  actions  ennoble  us,  and  we  are  sons  of  our  own  deeds.  — 
CERVANTES. 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

9.  To  err  is  human ;  to  forgive  divine.  —  POPE. 

10.  He  that  spits  against  the  wind,  spits  in  his  own  face. — 
FRANKLIN. 

11.  Without  courage  there  cannot  be  truth,  and  without  truth 
there  can  be  no  other  virtue.  —  ANON. 

1 2.  Look  up  and  not  down,  look  forward  and  not  back,  look  out 
and  not  in,  and  lend  a  hand.  —  E.  E.  HALE. 

13.  I  would  rather  be  beaten  in  the  right  than  succeed  in  the 
wrong.  —  JAMES.  A.  GARFIELD. 

14.  I  would  rather  be  right  than  President.  —  HENRY  CLAY. 

1 5.  It  is  a  small  thing  to  die,  but  a  great  thing  to  be  depraved.  — 
HORACE  MANN. 

1 6.  Borrow  neither  time  nor  money  of  your  neighbor:  both  are 
of  equal  value.  —  QUARLES. 

1 7.  A  beautiful  form  is  better  than  a  beautiful  face ;  a  beautiful 
behavior  is  better  than  a  beautiful  form.     It  is  the  finest  of  the  fine 
arts.  —  BACON. 

1 8.  Nothing  is  politically  right  that  is  morally  wrong.  —  O'CON- 
NOR. 

19.  The  man  without  a  purpose  is  like  a  ship  without  a  rudder.  — 
CARLYLE. 

20.  To  live  in  hearts  we  leave  behind  us  is  not  to  die.  —  ANON. 

21.  A  word  fitly  spoken  is  like  apples  of  gold  in  pictures  of 
silver.  —  PROVERBS. 

22.  Give  money  if  thou  canst;  if  not,  give  a  kind  and  gentle 
arord.  —  ANON. 

23.  They  are  never  alone  that  are  accompanied  with   noble 
thoughts.  —  SIR  PHILIP  SIDNEY. 

24.  Habit,    if    not    resisted,    soon    becomes    necessity.  —  ST. 
AUGUSTINE. 

25.  It  is  well  to  think  well  •,  it  is  divine  to  act  welL  —  HORACE 

MANN. 

26.  I  fear  that  man  most  who  fears  God  least 


MATERIALS  FOR  MORAt   LESSONS.  293 


MAXIMS    AND    PROVERBS. 

1.  A  light  heart  lives  long. 

2.  Never  accuse  others  to  excuse  yourself. 

3.  Honesty  is  the  best  policy. 

4.  Order  is  heaven's  first  law. 

5.  A  place  for  everything,  and  everything  in  its  place. 

6.  Well  begun  is  half  done. 

7.  He  who  does  his  best  does  well. 

8.  Good  health  is  better  than  wealth. 

9.  Not  failure,  but  low  aim,  is  crime. 

10.  True  worth  is  being,  not  seeming. 

11.  Being  good  is  the  mother  of  doing  good. 

12.  Keep  good  company  and  you  shall  be  of  the  number. 

13.  Fine  manners  are  the  mantle  of  fine  minds. 

14.  Politeness  is  the  outward  garment  of  good  will. 

15.  The  right  will  come  out  right. 

1 6.  Be  friendly,  and  you  will  never  want  friends. 

17.  Reverence  the  truth,  love,  and  God. 

1 8.  The  tongue  of  the  just  is  as  choice  silver. 

19.  Kind  words  are  the  music  of  the  world. 

20.  Bad  manners  are  a  species  of  bad  morals. 

21.  What  a  man  soweth,  that  shall  he  also  reap. 

22.  It  is  better  to  suffer  wrong  than  to  do  wrong. 

23.  Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart. 

24.  A  person  good  at  making  excuses  is  seldom  good  for  any. 
thing  else. 

25.  The  child  is  father  to  the  man. 

26.  Live  always  in  the  presence  of  a  true  man. 

27.  The  wrong  will  end  in  loss. 

28.  Charity  thinketh  no  evil. 

29.  Strike  while  the  iron  is  hot. 

30.  A  penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned. 

31.  A  penny  saved  is  twopence  clear. 

32.  They  that  touch  filth  will  be  defiled. 

33.  Write  injuries  in  dust ;  kindness  in  marble. 

34.  One  to-day  is  worth  two  to-morrows. 


294  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

35.  Diligence  is  the  mother  of  good  luck. 

36.  Necessity  is  the  mother  of  invention. 

37.  A  good  name  is  better  than  a  good  face. 

38.  Haste  makes  waste. 

39.  Birds  of  a  feather  flock  together. 

40.  A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 

41.  A  stitch  in  time  saves  nine. 

42.  Straws  show  which  way  the  wind  blows. 

43.  Before  honor  is  humility. 

44.  Familiarity  breeds  contempt. 

45.  A  bird  in  the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush. 

46.  Patience  is  the  key  of  content. 

47.  Be  not  wise  in  your  own  conceit. 

48.  Habit  is  ten  times  nature. 

49.  Pride  goeth  before  destruction. 

50.  A  hale  cobbler  is  better  than  a  sick  king. 

51.  Deeds  are  greater  than  words. 

52.  Heaven  helps  those  who  help  themselves. 

53.  A  still  tongue  makes  a  wise  head. 

54.  Little  things  please  little  minds. 

55.  Worth  makes  the  man,  and  want  of  it  the  fellow. 

56.  Experience  is  a  dear  school. 

57.  Speak  not  rather  than  speak  ill. 

58.  Think  twice  before  you  speak. 

59.  A  falsehood  is  like  pebbles  in  the  mouth. 

60.  Cheerful  looks  made  every  dish  a  feast. 

61.  The  best  law  is  the  golden  rule. 


RELIGION  IN  THE  SCHOOL.  2Q5 


RELIGION    IN    THE    SCHOOL. 

WE  have  reserved  for  separate  consideration  the 
relation  of  religion  to  moral  training,  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, its  necessary  place  and  function  in  the  school. 

It   has  been  shown   that   the   right   training  of  the 
will  —  the    essential   element    in    moral    training  —  in- 
volves the  use  of  the  highest  motives  that  can  be  made 
effective.     The  higher  the  motives  employed,     Relation 
the  more  valuable  the  resulting  will  training,      to  wui 
The  religious  motives  are  not  only  the  high- 
est, but  they  transcend  all  others  in  their  influence  on 
the  will.     It  is  the  high  sense  of  obligation,  which  they 
inspire,  that  most  effectively  frees  the  will  from  bondage 
to  selfish  impulses  and  desires,  and  makes  its  purposes 
imperative  and  abiding  in  conduct. 

Moreover,  the  religious  motives  are  the  correlates  of 
all  high  ethical  motives.  The  desire  for  approbation 
has  for  its  religious  correlate  the  desire  for  God's 
approval ;  the  desire  for  activity  and  power,  Religious 
the  desire  for  an  endless  life ;  the  desire  for  correlates, 
knowledge,  the  desire  to  know  God  and  his  will ;  the 
desire  for  self-control,  the  desire  for  spiritual  power ; 
the  desire  for  future  good,  the  desire  for  a  blessed 
immortality ;  the  sense  of  obligation,  the  sense  of 
duty  to  God,  etc.  These  religious  correlates  quicken 
and  energize  the  ethical  feelings  to  which  they  are 
related  ;  and  it  may  be  added,  that,  for  the  great  major- 
ity of  men,  religious  feelings  and  sanctions  are  neces- 
sary  to  give  desired  efficiency  to  ethical  motives.  Indeed, 
we  know  of  no  thoughtful  writer  who  denies  this  vital 


2Q6  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

relation  of  religious  sanctions  to  ethical  motives  and 
conduct.  "  But  think,"  said  Benjamin  Franklin,  in  a 
letter  to  Thomas  Paine,  "  how  great  a  portion  of  man- 
kind consists  of  weak  and  ignorant  men  and  women, 
and  of  inexperienced,  inconsiderate  youth  of  both  sexes, 
who  have  need  of  the  motives  of  religion  to  restrain 
them  from  vice,  to  support  their  virtue,  and  retain  them 
in  the  practice  of  it  till  it  becomes  habitual,  which  is  the 
i great  point  for  its  security." 

These  facts  show  why  it  is  that  religion  has  been  the 
strongest  influence  in  human  conduct,  and  the  mightiest 
of  historic  forces.  The  religious  motives  are  fibered  in 
Relation  to  m°dern  civilization,  and  they  constitute  the 
the  Moral  most  authoritative  element  of  the  moral  law. 
Law.  There  has  never  been  a  moral  code  that  has 
secured  the  free  obedience  of  men,  that  has  not  derived 
its  highest  authority  from  religion  ;  and  this  is  true  in 
pagan  as  well  as  in  Christian  lands.  Even  the  decay 
of  faith  in  Greek  mythology  was  attended  by  a  decline 
in  Greek  morals,  such  as  they  were.  History  fully 
warrants  the  statement  that  every  attempt  to  ground 
moral  obligation  solely  on  human  authority  has  resulted 
in  the  weakening  of  the  conscience,  the  enfeebling  of 
the  will,  and  the  lowering  of  the  moral  life  of  the 
people.  It  may  be  true  that  a  basis  of  right  and  wrong 
can  be  found  in  man's  moral  nature ;  but  the  obvious 
fact  of  human  experience  is,  that  their  appeal  to  the 
will  is  weak  when  unsupported  by  religious  sanctions 
and  influence.  In  the  murky  atmosphere  of  carnal 
and  selfish  appetites  and  desires,  moral  distinctions 
become  obscure  and  confused.  Virtue  comes  to  be 
regarded  as  mere  self-restraint,  temperance  as  the 
prudent  control  of  appetite,  and  honesty  as  merely 


RELIGION  IN   THE   SCHOOL, 

the  best  policy.     The  failure  of  human-born  motives  as 
a  barrier  to  vice  is  sad  history. 

We  must  not  shut  our  eyes  to  the  fact  that  an  essen- 
tial condition  of  free  and  willing  obedience  to  law  is  a 
reverence  for  its  authority,  and  this  involves  a  rever- 
ence for  its  source.  Back  of  the  authority  Reverence 
of  the  family,  the  school,  and  the  state,  f°rLaw. 
back  even  of  the  conscience,  is  the  Supreme  Being, 
the  final  source  of  obligation.  Human  law  has  its 
surest  ascendency  over  the  heart  and  the  will  when  it 
speaks,  not  simply  as  the  voice  of  human  nature,  but 
by  the  supreme  authority  of  the  Moral  Ruler  of  the 
world. 

Moreover,  the  practical  question  in  this  country  is 
not  what  religious  motives  sustain  moral  obligation  in 
pagan  or  non-Christian,  but  in  Christian  lands.  In 
a  Christian  civilization  the  religion  of  the  Religious 
Bible  enforces  the  moral  law,  and  the  appeal  sanctions, 
must  be  to  its  sanction  and  motives,  for  these  alone 
can  give  the  law  requisite  authority  in  conduct.  These 
vitalizing  religious  sanctions  and  motives  flow  from  a 
belief  in  a  personal  God,  not  only  as  Creator,  but  as  the 
Moral  Ruler  of  the  world ;  in  man's  dependence  on  and 
accountability  to  God,  and  his  obligation  to  love  and 
serve  Him  ;  and  especially  from  a  belief  in  a  future  life, 
—  in  immortality.  These  primary  religious  beliefs  are 
the  sources  of  those  sanctions  and  motives  that  so 
strongly  support  and  enforce  moral  obligation ;  and  we 
cannot  suppress  the  fear  that  any  system  of  moral  train- 
ing that  shuts  out  of  the  American  school  all  recogni- 
tion of  the  Supreme  Being  and  man's  immortality  will 
not  bear  the  test  of  character  and  life. 

A  knowledge  of  man's  accountability  to  God  is  made 


298  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

the  essential  condition  of  the  civil  oath.     How  obviously 

is  such  a  quickener  of  the  conscience  needed  in  moral 

God's  Omni-  training  !     Take,  as  an  illustration,  the  moral 

science,  support  that  is  afforded  by  a  consciousness  of 
God's  omniscience.  What  a  help  and  inspiration  to 
a  wayward  pupil  is  the  consciousness  that  the  eye  of  a 
just  and  loving  teacher  rests  upon  him  !  What  courage 
and  heroism  in  battle  have  been  inspired  by  the  eye  of 
the  general  in  command !  What  an  incentive  to  right 
conduct,  and  what  a  restraint  to  wrongdoing,  is  the  eye 
of  the  wise  and  good  !  Evil  hides  from  human  sight. 
Men  love  darkness  rather  than  light,  not  only  because, 
but  when,  their  deeds  are  evil. 

These  are  but  weak  illustrations  of  the  inspiring  and 
restraining  influence  on  human  conduct  that  flows  from 
Aii-seeing  a  consciousness  that  there  is  in  this  universe 
Eye-  an  All-seeing  Eye  that  is  never  closed  ;  that 
He  who  has  said,  "Thou  shalt  not,"  sees.  There  is 
no  such  vanquisher  of  temptation  as  the  clear  conscious- 
ness, "  Thou,  God,  seest  me  !  "  The  shutting-out  of  all 
consciousness  of  that  Omniscient  Eye  from  moral  train- 
ing in  school  would  be  like  the  shutting-out  of  the  light 
of  the  sun. 

RELIGIOUS  SANCTIONS  AND  MOTIVES  IN  SCHOOL. 

But  to  what  extent  can  these  primary  religious  sanc- 
tions and  motives  be  used  in  the  public  school  ?  The 
general  answer  is,  "  So  far  as  may  be  necessary  to  make 
moral  training  efficient,  AND  FOR  THIS  PURPOSE." 

This  important  question  is  simplified  by  a  recognition 
of  the  fact  that  religion  is  not  the  end  of  the  school, 
but  only  a  means  to  an  end,  that  end  effective  moral 
training.  The  function  of  the  school  is  to  prepare 


RELIGION  IN  THE  SCHOOL. 

its  pupils  to  live  completely  in  the  present  life ;   and 
this  involves  right  conduct  in  all  personal,  social,  and 
civil  relations,  and  this  involves  moral  char-  Religionnot 
acter.     Character  is  the  end  of  school  train-   the  End  of 
ing ;  religion,  only  a  means  to  this  end. 

This  distinction  between  religion  as  an  end  and  as  a 
means  is  very  clearly  set  forth  by  Dr.  J.  H.  Seelye  in 
these  words  :  — 

"  Religion  is  not,  in  any  proper  sense,  an  end  to  the  State.  The 
State,  though  having  its  ground  in  the  spiritual  or  religious  element 
in  human  nature,  has  no  aim  beyond  this  present  life.  Its  relations 
are  altogether  to  mankind  as  an  organized  community;  and  its 
peculiar  and  entire  province  is  to  guide  the  working  of  the  com- 
munity according  to  the  highest  civilization  and  freedom.  This 
is  its  true  and  highest  end ;  and,  while  it  may  use  everything  else 
subordinately  to  this,  it  may  use  this  for  nothing.  Religion  may 
be  employed  by  the  State  to  secure  the  ends  of  civilization  and 
freedom,  but  the  latter  may  never  be  yielded  to  subserve  any  re- 
ligious advancement.  With  the  individual,  religion  is  primary  as 
an  end;  with  the  State,  it  is  only  secondary,  and  a  means."  — 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,  vol.  xiii.  No.  52. 

This  distinction   is  not   only   important,   but  funda- 
mental ;  and  it  is  surprising  that  it  has  not  been  more 
generally  recognized.     If  religion  be  not  the  end  of  the 
public  school,  it  follows  that  the  teaching  of      ReiigiOUS 
religion  for  religious  ends  is  not  its  function.  Teaching  not 
The   school   may  use    religious    sanction   to  itsFunction- 
enforce  and  strengthen  moral   obligation,   just   as    the 
state  uses  it  in  administering  the  civil  oath  ;  but  neither 
the  state  nor  the  school  is  an  agency  for  the  advance- 
ment of  religion,  or  for  the  enforcement  of  its  precepts 
as  such,  though  each  may  use  religious  knowledge  and 
precepts  for  its  own  ends.     In  other  words,  while  reli- 
gion is  not  the  end  of  the  school,  it  may  use  those 


30O  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

religious  means  which  may  be  necessary  to  secure  effective 
moral  training,  —  the  highest  end  and  central  duty  of 
the  school. 

To  avoid  this  conclusion,  those  who  take  the  extreme 
view  that  all  religion  must  be  excluded  from  the  public 
school,  consistently  deny  that  moral  training  is  its  end 
or  function ;  but  no  objection  can  be  urged  against 
moral  training  in  school  that  does  not  hold  against  the 
school  itself. 

The  assumption  that  religion  is  the  end  of  the  school 

involves  the  making  of  religion  its  chief  concern  and 

Religion  as  function,  —  the  Franckean  claim  of  the  seven- 

an  End.  teenth  century  ;  for  the  duty  to  teach  religion 
as  an  end  involves  the  teaching  of  all  religious  truth 
essential  to  the  welfare  of  the  child's  soul.  No  one 
who  has  any  true  conception  of  the  importance  of  reli- 
gion to  the  individual,  can  be  satisfied  with  anything  less. 

Moreover,  if  religion  be  the  end  of  the  school,  the 

test  of  its  efficiency  is  the  pupils'  knowledge  of  the 

catechism  and  the   Bible,   their    fidelity  and 

Test  involved.  .  .     . 

zeal  in  religious  duty,  the  number  of  con- 
versions from  term  to  term,  etc.  It  is  obvious  that 
such  a  test  as  this  would  condemn  our  best  private 
schools,  even  those  under  the  immediate  direction  and 
supervision  of  the  church.  It  is  true  that  in  church 
schools  there  are  lessons  in  the  catechism  and  other 
instruction  to  prepare  children  for  confirmation,  and 
also  religious  services  and  exercises  ;  and  in  other 
private  schools  there  are  such  religious  exercises  as  the 
reading  of  the  Bible,  prayer,  and  singing,  and  in  addi- 
tion, especially  in  higher  schools,  weekly  lessons  in  the 
Scriptures  ;  but  how  far  all  this  falls  short  if  religion 
be  the  end  of  the  school ! 


RELIGION  IN  THE  SCHOOL.  30 1 

But  whatever  may  be  true  of  schools  under  private 
management,  the  public  school  cannot  make  religion  its 
end,  or  religious  instruction  and  worship  its  The  Public 
necessary  function.  It  must  leave  to  the  fam-  school. 
ily  and  the  church  the  obligation  to  provide  that  reli- 
gious instruction  that  looks  to  the  salvation  of  the  soul. 
There  is  even  among  the  managers  and  patrons  of 
private  schools  an  increasing  recognition  of  the  fact  that 
the  family,  the  church,  the  Sunday-school,  and  other 
voluntary  agencies,  must  be  depended  upon  to  give  our 
youth  a  saving  knowledge  of  religion.  Even  the  church 
school,  for  general  education,  no  longer  makes  religion 
its  chief  end. 

RELIGIOUS  MEANS  NEEDED  IN  MORAL  TRAINING. 

We  are  now  brought  face  to  face  with  the  practical 
question,  "  What  religious  means  are  needed  to  make 
moral  training  in  school  efficient,  and  how  may  they  be 
used?" 

It  has  already  been  shown  (p.  295)  that  the  ethical 
motives  need  to  be  quickened  and  supported  by  religious 
influence;  and  this  fact  suggests  that  there  Religious 
must  be  in  the  school  an  efficient  use  of  those  influence, 
religious  sanctions  and  motives  which  quicken  the  con- 
science, strengthen  moral  obligation,  and  influence  the 
will.  It  has  also  been  shown  that  these  needed  religious 
sanctions  and  motives  have  their  origin  in  certain  pri- 
mary religious  beliefs  (p.  297)  ;  and  so  the  question  is 
narrowed  to  the  best  method  of  using  these  religious 
means  to  secure  effective  moral  training,  and  this  can 
only  be  fully  determined  by  actual  experience. 

The  American  public  school  assumes  that  the  fam- 
ily and  the  church  have  given  some  attention  to  the 


3O2  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

religious  instruction  of  children,  and  that  its  pupils  are 
not  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  God,  of  man's  account- 
school  AS-  ability  to  Him,  and  other  primary  religious 
sumption,  beliefs.  It  provides  no  formal  instruction  in 
religious  knowledge,  but  uses  religion  for  moral  ends, 
just  as  is  done  by  the  state.  When,  for  example,  a 
witness  appears  in  court  to  give  testimony,  he  is  not 
formally  instructed  in  religious  beliefs  or  doctrines ; 
but  his  conscience  is  quickened,  and  its  authority  re- 
enforced  by  an  oath  that  appeals  to  the  Omniscient 
Searcher  of  hearts  and  the  Supreme  Judge.  A  similar 
but  less  formal  use  of  the  common  sanctions  of  religion 
is  made  by  the  school  to  quicken  the  moral  sense  of  its 
pupils ;  and  the  opportunities  for  such  an  enforcement 
of  moral  obligation  are  numerous.  No  conscientious 
teacher  is  shut  up  to  an  assigned  time,  or  place,  or 
manner. 

Moreover,  these  common  religious  truths  appear  in 
the  selections  for  reading,  in  the  lessons  in  literature 
Presence  of  an<^  history,  in  the  music  sung,  etc.,  and  often 
Religious  in  most  attractive  and  impressive  forms  ;  and 
Truths.  ^  attempt  to  exclude  them  from  the  school 
involves  a  serious  mutilation  of  both  literature  and 
music.  The  writer  once  knew  a  principal  who  at- 
tempted to  exclude  religion  from  his  school  by  marking 
for  omission  all  selections  or  parts  of  selections  in  the 
reader  that  contained  religious  ideas  and  sentiments. 
The  book  was  not  only  despoiled  of  its  literary  treas- 
ures, but  violence  was  done  to  the  religious  nature  of 
the  pupils.  But  he  stayed  his  hand  when  he  came  to 
the  music  book ;  for  the  exclusion  of  religion  from  it 
necessitated  the  striking-out  of  not  only  the  best  classi- 
cal music,  but  also  our  best  national  songs ! 


RELIGION  IN  THE  SCHOOL.  303 

Just  as  modern  civilization  goes  wherever  modern 
commerce  goes,  so  religion  goes  wherever  Christian 
literature  goes.  It  pervades  the  American  Christian 
school,  thrives  in  its  atmosphere,  and  is  Literature, 
easily  made  a  vital  element  in  its  spirit  and  life. 
The  one  essential  condition  to  this  end  is  a  teacher 
whose  mind  and  heart  quickly  respond  to  religious 
truth  and  motives.  It  is,  indeed,  difficult  to  see  how 
a  religious  man  or  woman  can  teach  reading,  or  litera- 
ture, or  natural  science,  or  music,  without  reverent 
recognitions  of  God,  and  man's  accountability  to  Him. 
These  and  other  common  religious  beliefs  meet  teacher 
and  pupil  on  every  hand,  and  a  failure  to  recognize 
them  involves  the  intentional  closing  of  the  eyes 
in  their  presence.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  easy  to  see 
how  happily  the  eye  of  the  pupil  may  be  lifted  to  God, 
the  giver  of  all  good,  and  his  heart  made  receptive  to 
down-flowing  religious  influence.  The  practical  diffi- 
culty is  not  in  properly  using  religion  in  the  school,  but 
in  excluding  it  from  the  school. 

It  has  been  shown  (p.  279)  that  Bible  stories,  prov- 
erbs, etc.,  may  be  happily  used   in   moral   instruction. 
The  Bible  abounds  in  material  of  the  highest     Biblein 
ethical  value.      It    presents    not   only  man's       Moral 
duty  to  man  in  an  incomparable  manner,  but    Traimne- 
supports  the  same  by  effective  religious  motives.     This 
fact  gives  the  Bible  its  unquestioned  preeminence  as  a 
means  of  moral  training,  and  there  can  be  no  reason- 
able objection  to  its  use  in  school  for  moral  ends.     The 
teacher  is  urged  to  cull  literature  for  the  best  examples 
and  the  best  rules  of  human  conduct ;  and  why  should 
he  not   also  go  to  the  Bible  for  such  material  ?     We 
share,  on  this  point,  the  perplexity  of  Mr.  Huxley,  of 


304  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

England,   as  expressed  by  him   in   an    address  to  the 
London  School  Board  in  these  timely  words :  — 

"  I  have  always  been  strongly  in  favor  of  secular  education,  in 
the  sense  of  education  without  theology ;  but  I  must  confess  I 
have  been  no  less  seriously  perplexed  to  know  by  what  practical 
measures  the  religious  feeling,  which  is  the  essential  basis  of  con- 
duct, is  to  be  kept  up,  in  the  present  utterly  chaotic  state  of  opinion 
on  these  matters,  without  the  use  of  the  Bible." 

It  ought  to  be  unnecessary  to  add  that  the  use  of  the 
Bible  in  school  for  moral  ends  does  not  necessarily  in- 
volve its  reading  as  a  part  of  stated  devotional  exercises. 
Its  incomparable  narratives,  parables,  and  precepts  may 
not  only  be  efficiently  used  in  moral  instruction,  both 
incidental  and  regular,  as  previously  shown,  but,  in 
other  ways,  its  vitalizing  influence  may  be  brought  to 
bear  on  the  conscience  and  heart  of  pupils.  The  pres- 
ence of  the  Bible  in  the  school  is  a  wider  question  than 
its  formal  reading  as  an  act  of  worship. 

We  are  thus  brought  to  a  consideration  of  the  pur- 
pose and  moral  value  of  devotional  exercises  in  school, 
Devotional  and  we  touch  here  the  special  issue  which  is 
Exercises,  erroneously  supposed  by  many  to  determine 
the  question  of  religion  or  no  religion  in  the  school. 
Devotional  exercises,  so  called,  have  long  had  a  place 
in  American  schools,  and  they  are  still  permitted,  in 
some  form,  in  the  great  majority  of  these  schools. 
They  usually  include  the  reading  of  a  Scripture  selec- 
tion, prayer  (often  the  recital  of  the  Lord's  Prayer), 
and  the  singing  of  a  sacred  song.  They  frequently 
include  only  Bible  reading  and  singing,  sometimes  only 
Bible  reading  or  singing.  These  exercises  usually  occur 
at  the  opening  of  school  in  the  morning. 

These  simple  religious  exercises  have  been  widely 
regarded  and  treated  as  religious  instruction  and  formal 


RELIGION  IN   THE  SCHOOL.  305 

worship,  and,  on  these  grounds,  they  have  been  objected 
to  by  some  as  foreign  to  the  school,  and  by  others  as 
not  properly  conducted  by  laymen.  The 

/.  J          J  Objections. 

principal  objection   has  been  urged  Against 

the   Scripture  reading  and  the  prayer.     There  is  small 

ground  for  the  claim  that  these  simple  exercises  are 

in    any  just  sense  technical  religious    instruction,  and 

much   less   for   the  assertion  that   they  are   sectarian 

instruction.1 

The  practical  end  of  these  exercises  is  not  religious 
instruction,  but  the  awakening  and  deepening  of  reli- 
gious feeling ;  and,  when  they  fail  to  secure  practical 
this  end,  they  fail  to  realize  their  true  pur-  End- 
pose.  The  effectiveness  of  religious  sanctions  in  moral 
training  depends  much  on  the  presence  of  religious 
feeling,  this  being  specially  true  in  childhood ;  and,  for 
this  reason,  it  becomes  desirable  in  school  to  quicken 
and  deepen  religious  emotion.  Experience  shows  that 
the  most  impressive  forms  of  presenting  religious 
truth  to  the  mind  and  heart  of  the  young  include  the 
reverent  reading  of  the  Bible,  prayer  (oral  or  silent), 
and  sacred  song ;  and  so  these  exercises  (one  or  more) 
have  found  their  place  in  the  school. 

They  are  at  their  best  impressive  appeals  to  the  reli- 
gious nature  of  pupils,  and  whether  or  not  they  accomplish 
their  purpose  depends  much  on  the  spirit  and    spirit  and 
manner  in  which  they  are  conducted.     The     Manner, 
reading  of  the  Bible  in  an  indifferent  and  perfunctory 
manner  neither  increases  the  pupils'  reverence  for  it 

1  This  claim  is  usually  based  on  the  assumption  that  Protestantism  is  a 
sect.  Protestantism  is  composed  of  many  sects,  and  also  of  many  persons 
who  belong  to  no  religious  organization.  The  Bible  is  not  a  sectarian 
book  in  the  sense  that  it  is  the  Bible  of  a  particular  organization  or 
denomination.  The  version  used  in  school  is  not  important. 
20 


3O6  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

nor  touches  their  emotional  nature.  In  too  many 
schools  the  Bible  is  read  in  an  irreverent  manner,  many 
of  the  pupils,  it  may  be,  meanwhile  preparing  lessons, 
or  doing  worse ;  a,nd  the  most  beautiful  hymns  of  praise 
are  so  sung  (?)  as  to  rob  them  of  all  religious  influence. 
Even  the  Lord's  Prayer  is  sometimes  recited  noisily,  and 
too  often  irreverently.  The  real  end  of  the  so-called 
devotional  exercise  is  thus  subverted  ;  and  we  have  no 
hesitation  in  saying  that  it  would  be  much  better  to  omit 
the  exercise  altogether  than  to  conduct  it  in  an  improper 
manner.  It  must  ever  be  kept  in  mind  that  what  the 
school  needs  for  its  ends,  is  not  religious  ceremony  as 
such,  but  religious  influence  as  a  means  to  moral  training^ 
It  is  feared  that  the  great  stress  laid  on  the 
opening  of  the  school  with  devotional  exercises  has 
True  somewhat  obscured  the  necessity  of  moral  in- 
vaiue.  struction,  and,  as  a  consequence,  has  resulted 
in  its  neglect.  These  exercises  can  never  take  the  place 

1  There  is  little  difficulty  in  making  these  opening  exercises  interesting 
to  pupils.  To  this  end,  they  should  be  brief,  and  pervaded  by  the  teach- 
er's interest  and  a  reverent  spirit.  The  Scripture  selection  should  be  a 
brief  passage,  a  psalm,  a  parable,  a  few  precepts  or  proverbs,  an  incident 
in  a  narrative,  etc.  Morris's  Scripture  Readings  will  be  found  help- 
ful in  higher  grades.  The  proper  reading  of  the  selection  will  easily  hold 
the  attention  of  the  school.  The  prayer,  if  oral,  should  also  be  brief,  — 
the  Lord's  Prayer  being  the  model,  —  and  in  form  and  spirit  it  should  be  a 
school  prayer.  The  song  selected  should  be  calculated  to  lift  the  soul  to 
God  in  praise,  thanksgiving,  and  adoration.  The  writer's  experience  in 
conducting  devotional  exercises  in  school  has  been  chiefly  in  grammar 
schools,  high  schools,  and  college.  In  his  first  schools  they  consisted  of 
Scripture  reading  and  singing;  later,  in  school  and  in  college,  of  Scripture 
reading,  prayer,  and  singing,  all  not  exceeding  ten  minutes.  In  one  gram- 
mar school  the  Scripture  lessons  were  read  responsively,  selections  from 
the  Proverbs  and  the  Psalms  being  chiefly  used  for  the  purpose.  In  all 
these  schools  and  in  the  university,  the  pupils  included  Catholics  and 
Hebrews;  and  the  writer  never  received  the  least  intimation  that  any  one 
desired  the  omission  of  any  part  of  the  exercises. 


RELIGION  IN  THE  SCHOOL.  307 

of  needed  instruction  in  duty,  or  make  such  instruction 
unnecessary ;  and  it  may  be  added  that  their  presence  in 
a  school  is  no  guaranty  of  effective  moral  training.  At 
their  best,  they  are  only  supplementary  means,  important 
as  supporting  influence,  but  insufficient  of  themselves 
for  the  attainment  of  desired  moral  results.  Moreover, 
it  is  easy  to  overestimate  the  moral  influence  of  per- 
functory religious  exercises  of  any  kind  in  school ;  and 
too  much  is  easily  claimed  for  the  reciting  of  the  cate- 
chism and  other  formal  religious  instruction,  so  common 
in  schools  under  church  control.  The  moral  results  of 
such  religious  instruction  certainly  afford  no  justification 
for  the  claim  that  its  absence  from  the  school  leaves  no 
basis  for  moral  training.  Intelligent  observers  agree  that 
the  technical  instruction  in  religion  given  in  the  public 
schools  of  some  countries  has  little  real  moral  power. 

We  are,  however,  far  from  conceding  that  these  exer- 
cises, when  properly  conducted,  have  little  or  no  ethical 
value.  A  writer  who  often  assumes  to  know  intuitively 
what  is  true  in  the  experience  of  others,  declares  that 
"  no  boy  or  girl  ever  received  a  religious  impression  of 
the  least  value  in  the  devotional  exercises  in  school ;  " 
but  teachers  who  have  thus  impressed  for  good  hun- 
dreds of  pupils,  know  better  ;  and  we  venture  the  asser- 
tion that  hundreds  of  the  readers  of  these  pages  know 
that  this  was  not  true  in  their  own  experience  as  pupils. 

But  whatever  may  be  true  of  religious  exercises  in 
school,  when  properly  conducted,  all  must   agree  that 
their  moral  value  may  be  more  than  offset  by     Religious 
the  harm  done  when  they  really  offend  the      scruples, 
religious    scruples   of   pupils  or   patrons,  —  an  offense 
which  happily  is  not  likely  to  occur  in  the  great  major- 
ity of  American  schools.     When  this  liability  exists,  it 


308  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

would  seem  to  be  wiser  to  make  appropriate  singing,  to 
which  there  can  be  no  objection,  the  opening  exer- 
cise of  the  day.  Music  not  only  awakens  the  religious 
emotions,  but  it  calms  the  mind,  and  is  otherwise  an 
excellent  preparation  for  school  duties.  The  noblest 
and  most  vital  religious  and  ethical  sentiments  may 
thus  be  impressed  upon  the  mind  and  heart. 

"  Music  hath  charms  to  soothe  the  savage  breast." 

It  is  thus  seen  that  what  is  needed  that  religion  may 

serve  the  ends  of  the  school,  is  not  the  formal  teaching 

what       of   the    Bible  and   the  catechism,  or    other 

is  needed,  technical  religious  instruction,  not  perfunc- 
tory religious  services  or  worship,  but  the  wise  and  rev- 
erent use  of  those  common  religious  sanctions  and 
motives  which  quicken  the  conscience  and  enforce 
moral  obligation ;  and  these  may  be  made  effective  in 
school  by  the  use  of  means  that  give  no  offense  to 
the  enlightened  conscience  of  pupils  or  patrons. 

It  is  also  seen  that  there  is  no  justification  of  the  de- 
mand that  all  religious  truth  and  influence  be  excluded 
Exclusion  of  from  the  public  school.  This  extreme  posi- 

Reiigion.  tion  is  taken  by  very  few  school  patrons ; 
and  its  realization  would  not  only  offend  nine  tenths  of 
these  patrons,  but  would  be  unsatisfactory  to  all.  Noth- 
ing could  more  seriously  offend  the  religious  instincts 
and  conscience  of  the  American  people  than  the  attempt 
to  despoil  the  literature,  the  music,  and  other  studies  of 
the  public  school,  of  all  religious  truth.  Moreover,  the 
attempt  to  exorcise  all  religious  influence  from  the 
school  would  inevitably  result  in  lowering  its  moral 
efficiency,  and  in  seriously  lessening  its  value  to  the 
pupils,  to  society,  and  to  the  state. 


RELIGION  IN   THE  SCHOOL.  309 

The  writer  is  aware  that  theoretical  objections  can 
be  urged  against  the  practicability  of  the  golden  mean 
above  suggested,  but  happily  there  is  no  such  Golden 
difficulty  in  the  actual  practice  of  thousands  Mean, 
of  American  teachers.  The  great  majority  of  Ameri- 
can schools  are  pervaded  by  religious  influence,  without 
being  sectarian ;  and  this  fact  should  be  more  univer- 
sally recognized.  At  least  three  avenues  must  always 
remain  open  for  the  introduction  of  needed  religious 
truth  and  sanctions  into  all  our  schools.  These  are 
Christian  literature,  sacred  song,  and  Christian  teach- 
ers ;  and  against  these  there  is  no  law. 


INDEX. 


.  B.  —  The  figures  refer  to  pages. 


Accountability,  man's,  297,  303. 
Accuracy,  116;  mechanical,  117. 
Action,  moral,  107;  of  the  will 

free,  107;    skillful,    165. 
Activity,  desire  for,  150;   means  to 

efficiency,  163;   a  pleasure^  163; 

how  secured,  165. 
./Esthetic  emotion,  225. 
Affection,  natural,  30,  183. 
Aged,  respect  for  the,  251. 
Air,  impure,  67. 

Allegory,    by  Addison,    44;    alle- 
gories, 227. 

Allen,  Edward  H.,  170. 
Alternatives,  choice  between,  119. 
Altruistic    desires,    154;     feelings, 

170;  appeals,  173. 
Angel's  work,  271. 
Animals,  kindness  to,  232,  245,  255. 
Apology,  an,  202;   manly,  277. 
Appeals  to  sense  of  honor,  173. 
Appetite  of  the  soul,  161. 
Application,     119,     127,     128;     to 

school  discipline,  199. 
Appointment  of  teachers,  55. 
Appreciation  of  school  attainments, 

140. 
Approbation,  desire  for,  150;  true 

source,  159. 
Aptitude,  natural,  19. 
Arbor  Day,  63. 

Architectural  improvements,  63. 
Aristotle,  123. 
Arnold,  Matthew,  III. 
Arnold,  Thomas,  25. 
Artificial  incentives,  131,  132,  133, 

141,  144,  145,  146;  use  of,  144, 

145;  claims  for,  147. 


Artificial  rewards,  139,  140. 

Assignment  of  lessons,  169. 

Assistants,  training,  96. 

Athletic  sports,  164. 

Attention,  22,  117,  I2O,  127,  162; 
limits  of,  1 66. 

Authority,  requisite,  48;  inherent, 
50;  results  of  official  interference 
in,  52;  questioned  by  parents, 
53;  exercise  of  doubtful,  53; 
kinds  of,  123. 

Aversions,  187. 

Awarding  prizes,  133,  139,  140. 

Backbone,  38. 

Backwoods  school,  59. 

Ballad,  the,  226. 

Bears,  dreams  about,  186. 

Bent  twig,  83. 

Bible,  the,  227;  relation  of,  to  moral 
law,  297;  religion  of,  297;  use 
of,  in  moral  training,  303;  in 
school,  304;  not  sectarian,  305. 

Bible  stories,  279,  303. 

Biographies,  227. 

Bissell,  Rev.  Samuel,  145. 

Black  Beauty,  240. 

Blackboard  pictures,  63. 

Blows  on  the  head,  210. 

Book,  non-use  of,  23. 

Book-keeping,  less,  158. 

Boston  schools,  physical  training 
in,  84;  master,  story  of,  174. 

Boutwell,  George  S.,  170. 

Branches  of  study,  moral  value  of, 
218. 

Brevity  of  stories,  240. 

Brief  sayings,  291,  292. 


312 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


Business  success,  171. 
Busy,  keeping   pupils,  93;     work, 
preparation  of,  99. 

Cabalistic  percentages,  155. 

Cardinal  virtues,  123. 

Catechism,  the,  300. 

Change  of  classes,  169. 

Character,  prime  element  in,  14; 
moral,  43;  relation  of,  to  influ- 
ence, 43;  result  of  moral  action, 
107;  vital  issue,  219;  in  teacher, 
230. 

Character  training,  14,  15,  105; 
law  of,  106;  central  duty,  300. 

Characteristics  of  punishment,  198; 
certainty,  198;  justice,  2OO;  nat- 
uralness, 203. 

Cheating,  125. 

Cheerful  obedience,  122. 

Chillicothe  High  School,  59,  170, 
179. 

Choice,  107,  119. 

Christian  literature,  303. 

Church  schools,  300. 

Cigarette  smoking,  98. 

Circulation  of  air.    See  Ventilation. 

Civil  duties,  109,  237;  oath,  267, 
298. 

Class  exercises,  86,  91 ;  programme, 
86;  time-table,  87. 

Classes  of  moral  acts,  180. 

Classification,  15. 

Cleanliness,  115,  232,  243,  270. 

Cleveland  Grammar  School,  23. 

Clock,  like  a,  28,  95,  168,  186. 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor,  130,  182. 

College  training,  171. 

Command,  reason  of,  121. 

Common  sense,  41  ;  importance  of, 
42  ;  in  great  disciplinarians,  42. 

Communication  of  knowledge,  162. 

Company,  bad,  251. 

Comparison  of  attainments,  133, 
135;  of  conduct,  135. 

Compayre,  Gabriel,  230. 

Competition,  increasing,  136,  172. 

Concert  of  movement,  170. 

Concrete  examples,  224. 

Conditions  of  easy  control,  30, 
48-79  ;  requisite  qualifications  of 


teacher,  48  ;  requisite  authority, 
48;  confidence  and  cooperation, 
54;  attractive  schoolroom,  58; 
proper  heating  and  ventilation, 
64;  proper  lighting,  75;  proper 
seats  and  desks,  76. 

Conditions  of  school  work,  13,  80. 

Conduct,  steps  to,  1 1 1 ;  comparison 
of  pupils',  135;  treatment  of, 
181;  determined  by  will,  222; 
right,  225;  rules  of,  226. 

Confession,  234,  277. 

Confidence  of  pupils,  21 ;  skill  wins, 
27;  of  patrons  and  school  offi- 
cers, 54;  teacher  worthy  of,  56; 
public,  56. 

Conscience,  112,  223,  224,  296,  304. 

Consequence,  punishment  by,  203. 

Contrasts  in  discipline,  18. 

Control,  examples  of,  17;  condi- 
tions of,  30,  48-79;  outer,  1 68; 
pupils'  right  to,  168. 

Cooperation,  needed,  54,  56,  58. 

Copying  gems  and  maxims,  240. 

Correlates,  religious,  295. 

Courage,  235,  250,  276. 

Course  of  study,  15;  of  moral  in- 
struction, 231-233. 

Court,  testimony  in,  302. 

Courtesy,  124. 

Crank-turning,  30, 162. 

Criminal  cases,  testimony  in,  177. 

Criticism  of  teachers,  52,  54. 

Crocodile  killer,  41. 

Cruelty,  203. 

Curiosity,  161,  163. 

Cutler,  Carroll,  in. 

Deceit,  124. 

Degrading  punishments,  211;  epi- 
thets, 211. 

Deliberative  preference,  123. 

Demerits,  135,  214. 

Desires,  131;  for  good  standing,  150, 
154;  approbation,  150,  158; 
knowledge,  150,  160,  161;  effi- 
ciency, 150,  163;  self-control, 
150,  1 66;  future  good,  150,  170; 
to  merit  approval,  159. 

Desks.     See  School  Desks. 

Desperation,  strength  of,  187. 


INDEX. 


313 


Details  regulated,  95. 

Detection  of  school  offenders,  177. 

Detention  from  play,  213;  after 
school,  215. 

Devices,  test  of,  10;  as  sensations, 
li;  comparative  value,  n;  for 
window  ventilation,  73;  mechani- 
cal, 80;  as  conditions,  80;  for 
regulating  light,  81;  to  remedy 
bad  postures,  81. 

Devotional  exercises,  304-307. 

Didactic  instruction  in  morals,  229. 

Disciplinarians,  great,  42. 

Discipline,  school,  13,  17;  skill  in, 
27;  moral,  105;  incentives,  rela- 
tion of,  130;  fear  in,  185;  pun- 
ishment, 190. 

Displeasure  as  a  punishment,  213. 

Disposition,  generous,  45,  46. 

Distribution  of  material,  96. 

Divine  will,  123;  authority,  123; 
government,  193,  199. 

Dreams  of  not  passing,  186;  about 
bears,  186. 

Drill,  13;   needed,  not  law,  181. 

Dull  pupils,  142;  German  inquiry 
respecting,  143. 

Duty,  14;  of  teachers,  79;  sense 
of,  182;  the  call  of  God,  183; 
teacher's  sense  of,  183;  rules  of, 
227;  fidelity  in,  233,  247,  257. 

Economy,  239. 

Education,  end  and  kinds  of,  12. 

Efficiency,  150,  153,  163;  value  of, 
in  school  training,  164;  desire 
for,  to  be  satisfied,  166. 

Electrometer,  32. 

Eliot,  President,  225. 

Emancipation,  teacher's,  147. 

Emulation,  136,  137. 

End,  knowledge  of,  9,  10. 

Endeavor,  faithful,  160. 

Ends  and  means,  9;  of  education, 
12;  of  intellectual  training,  13; 
of  school  discipline,  192;  of  pun- 
ishment, 194-196. 

Enforcement   of  penal  rules,    199. 

Environment,  physical,  58,  82. 

Escape-air  ducts,  69. 

Estimates,  teachers',  135. 


Ethical  motives,  295;  value  of 
stories,  240. 

Ethics  as  a  science,  224,  225,  229. 

Eureka,  161. 

Examination,  15;  ordinary,  158. 

Examples  of  control,  17;  teacher's 
personal,  45,  230;  concrete,  224, 
225. 

Exclusion  of  religion  from  school 
not  possible,  302,  308. 

Exemption  from  school  duties,  143. 

Exercises,  class,  86,  91;  three- 
grade,  92;  language,  92;  devo- 
tional, 304-307. 

Expedients,  temporary,  145. 

Experience,  author's,  59,  195,  306. 

Eye,  power  of,  39;  omnistient,  298. 

Eyes  and  ears,  38. 

Eyes,  protection  of,  81. 

Fables,  227,  280. 

Fairy  tales,  227,  278,  280. 

False  praise,   160;  code  of  honor, 

I75>  176. 

Falsehood,  44. 

Family,  122,  193,  201,  208,  209. 

Fear  of  punishment,  109;  as  an  in- 
centive, 183,  185;  function  of, 
to  restrain,  186,  188,  195;  con- 
trasted with  desire  and  aversion, 
187;  mistakes  in  use  of,  187. 

Feelings,  right,  112,  223;  solicit 
the  will,  222;  religious,  295. 

Fidelity  and  success,  159;  to  be 
commended,  1 60;  in  duty,  22^ 
247,  257,  277;  want  of,  278. 

Filial  love,  245. 

First  month  of  school,  35;  day's 
seating,  85. 

Flattery,  160. 

Flexibility  of  daily  programme,  87. 

Flogging  pupils,  205. 

Foot  rests,  77. 

Forgiveness,  234,  261. 

Fortitude,  120. 

Franckean  claim,  300. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  296. 

Free  text-books,  97;  material,  98. 

Freedom,  highest,  no. 

French  programme,  149;  illustra- 
tion of  penal  reform,  201. 


314 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


Future  good,  desire  for,  150,  170; 
efficiency  as  an  incentive  for, 
171;  means  to,  193. 

Gems,  literary,  227,  282,  290. 

Generous  disposition,  46. 

Gentleness,  232,  243. 

God  as  moral  ruler,  297;  om- 
niscience of,  298. 

Golden  mean,  309. 

Good  for  evil,  272. 

Good  order,  13;  standing,  154, 
155;  teaching,  218;  name,  235; 
manners,  236,  272. 

Governing  power,  elements  of,  15, 
19;  good  scholarship,  21 ;  skill 
in  teaching  and  managing,  26; 
heart  power,  30;  will  power, 
34;  good  eyes  and  ears,  38; 
common  sense,  41;  moral  char- 
acter, 43;  sunny  disposition,  45. 

Government,  ends  of,  13;  an  art, 
106;  human,  193;  divine,  193. 

Graded-school  management,  15. 

Grammar  grades,  moral  lessons  for, 
254-269. 

Guizot,  Madame,  231. 

Gymnastics,  83. 

Habits,  34;  in  school,  35,  82;  of 

inattention,   40;    evil,  47,    236; 

right,  95;   of  industry,  120. 
Hand,  lend  a,  276. 
Happiness,  143;   desire  for,  150. 
Harris,  Dr.  W.  T.,  115,  120. 
Harrison,  President,  address  of,i86. 
Health  and  study,  25;   lessons  on, 

236. 

Heart  power,  30,  47,  230. 
Heating  and  ventilation,  64. 
Herbert,  George,  225. 
History,  218,  226,  302. 
Holidays  as  incentives,  141. 
Home  criticism,  54;   reading,  240. 
Honesty,  125,  234,  252,  276. 
Honor,  sense  of,   173;    confidence 

in,  174;    false  code  of,  175,  176; 

true  sense  of,  177,  180;   lessons 

on,  234,  262. 
Honor  seats,  142. 
Human  body,  82;  government,  193. 


Humility,  235,  275. 
Huntington,  Dr.  F.  D.,  44. 
Huxley,  Thomas  Henry,  303. 

Ichneumon,  41. 

Illustrations,  17,  22,  27,  31,  34,  35, 
38,  40,  41,  45,  59,  60,  61,  96, 
100,  125,  138,  141,  145,  146, 
168,  174,  184,  197,  200,  201, 

202,  204,  205,  207,  208,  302. 

Immortality,  man's,  297. 

Immunities  as  incentives,  148. 

Impulses,  selfish,  118;  motive,  131. 

Inattention,  habit  of,  40. 

Incentives,  nature  of,  130;  artificial, 
131,132-148;  natural,  131, 148- 
188;  important  distinction  be- 
tween natural  and  artificial,  149; 
groups  of,  151. 

Inculpative  information,  176. 

Individuality,  28. 

Industry,  no,  127;  in  modern 
school,  120;  habit  of,  120;  les- 
sons on,  237,  253,  273. 

Influence,  43;  of  beautiful  school- 
room, 59;  moral,  128;  desire  for, 
150;  religious,  302,  308. 

Injustice  of  prize  system,  133. 

Instruction,  13;   two  steps  in,  162. 

Instruction,  moral.  See  Moral  In- 
struction. 

Insubordination  in  school,  268. 

Interest,  22,  127,  162;  how  awak- 
ened, 24,  163,  164,  169, 172, 188. 

Invalids  for  life,  138. 

Justice,  123,  199,  200,  201. 

Keeping  pupils  busy,  93;  school, 
95;  pupils  after  school,  215; 
one's  word,  233,  278. 

Kindness,  124,  232,  244,  254,  271, 
274;  to  animals,  232,  245,  255. 

Knowledge,  13;  desire  for,  150, 
160,  161;  how  taught,  162;  not 
sensation,  163;  awakens  feeling, 

222. 

Language,  bad,  236,  266. 

Last  word,  182. 

Law,   loo,   181;  respect  for,  101; 


INDEX. 


315 


to  be  enforced,  190;  obedience 
to,  191;  dignity  of,  197;  maxim, 
20 1 ;  of  moral  instruction,  225; 
reverence  for,  297. 

Law  for  schools  in  a  sentence,  47. 

Leaf,  turning  new,  35. 

Legends,  227. 

Legislation,  penal,  200. 

Lesson  and  study  programme,  86, 89. 

Lessons,  making  up,  215. 

Liberty,  no,  167. 

Lighting  schoolrooms,  75,  76. 

Liquor  selling  to  minors,  197. 

Literary  gems,  227,  282-290. 

Literature,  218,  226,  302;  Chris- 
tian, 303. 

Locke,  John,  224. 

Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  no. 

Love  for  pupils,  30;  for  those 
needing  it,  31;  real,  32;  and 
obedience,  no;  personal,  no, 
184;  as  an  incentive,  183;  wins 
love,  183;  supports  other  incen- 
tives, 184;  fulfilling  the  law,  184; 
an  example,  184;  lessons  on, 
232,  245,  255. 

Making  up  lessons,  215. 

Malevolent  affections,  137. 

Mammoth  Cave,  125. 

Mann,  Horace,  137,  147,  176,  187, 
215,  217. 

Manners,  outlines  of  lessons  on, 
232;  good,  236. 

Marble,  Supt.  A.  P.,  76. 

Marking  deportment,  135,  214; 
daily,  157. 

Material,  free,  98;   selling  of,  98. 

Materials  for  moral  lessons,  226, 
239-294. 

Maxim  in  will  training,  154;  school, 
164;  law,  201. 

Maxims  and  proverbs,  226,  227, 
293,  294. 

Mean,  golden,  309. 

Means  and  ends,  9;  nature's,  163; 
religion  a,  299. 

Mechanical  accuracy,  117. 

Mechanical  devices,  15;  proper 
seating  of  pupils,  80;  daily  pro- 
gramme, 86;  three -grade  pro- 


gramme, 90 ;  self-regulating 
system,  9^  •  few  rules,  100. 

Mechanism,  95. 

Medal  pupils,  \^8. 

Methods,  18,  28;  special,  29;  of 
self-reporting,  179;  of  moral 
instruction,  228. 

Minors,  selling  liquor  to,  197. 

Miscellaneous  stories,  270-281. 

Mischief,  incipient,  40. 

Mistakes,  common,  of  teachers,  42; 
of  superintendents,  52. 

Modern  school,  industry  in,  120; 
ideal,  170. 

Moral  action,  107;   classes  of,  180. 

Moral  character,  43,  108;  end  of 
school  training,  299. 

Moral  code,  296. 

Moral  education,  12. 

Moral  efficiency  of  school  disci- 
pline, 126. 

Moral  elements  in  school  training, 
218. 

Moral  ends,  126. 

Moral  guilt,  190. 

Moral  heroism,  226. 

Moral  influence,  128. 

Moral  instruction  (a),  15,111,112; 
need  of,  218,  220;  other  moral 
elements  insufficient,  219;  inci- 
dental and  personal,  220;  objec- 
tion to,  221;  knowledge  of  its 
principles  needed,  222;  psychical 
facts,  222;  vital  fact,  241. 

Moral  instruction  (£),  ends  of, 
223;  principles,  224;  concrete 
examples,  224;  right  feelings, 
224;  conscience,  224;  moral 
judgment,  224;  ethics  as  a 
science,  224;  primary  law,  225 ; 
aesthetic  emotions,  225;  litera- 
ture, 226;  rules  of  conduct,  226. 

Moral  instruction  (<:),  materials 
for,  226;  where  found,  227;  the 
Bible,  227;  fairy  tales,  227;  race 
theory,  228;  myths,  228;  lessons 
arranged,  242-269;  miscella- 
neous stories,  270-281;  literary 
gems,  282-290;  brief  sayings, 
291,  292;  maxims  and  proverbs, 
293,  294. 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


Moral  instruction  (^/),  methods  of, 
228;  natural  order,  228;  ques- 
tions on  lessons,  229;  didactic, 
229;  spirit,  from  the  heart,  230. 

Moral  instruction  (<?),  course  of, 
231;  virtue  to  be  taught,  231; 
lessons  not  graded,  231;  formal 
lessons  in  vice,  231;  vice  in  con- 
trast with  virtue,  231;  outlines 
of  lessons  in  morals  and  manners, 
232-237. 

Moral  judgment,  224. 

Moral  lessons,  place  in  programme, 
220;  materials  for,  242-294. 

Moral  obligation,  128,  297. 

Moral  purity,  119. 

Moral  quality  of  action,  108,  127. 

Moral  results  of  artificial  incentives, 
147. 

Moral  Ruler,  God  a,  297. 

Moral  sentiment,  177,  179. 

Moral  training,  104,  no;  elements 
in,  112;  central  duty  of  the 
school,  219;  function  of  the 
school,  300;  the  Bible  in,  303; 
religion  a  means  to,  306. 

Moral  value  of  will  training,  127. 

Moral  virtue,  125. 

Morals  and  manners,  232-237. 

Motives,  108,  112,  127,  128,  130; 
common,  153,  183;  comparative 
worth,  153;  scale  of  natural, 
153;  ethical,  295;  religious, 
295;  human-born,  297. 

Mule,  aimed  at  the,  34. 

Music,  moral  value  of,  218,  219, 
302,  308. 

Mythology,  Greek,  296. 

Myths,  228. 

Natural  aptitude,  19. 
Natural  desires,  149. 
Natural  incentives,  131,  137,  148; 

unequal  influence,  152;    "Royal 

Nine,"  153. 

Natural  order  of  steps,  228. 
Natural  punishment,  203-205 ;  wide 

application    of     principle,    205; 

high   qualifications  in  governor, 

206;   limitations  and  conditions, 

207;  illustrations,  208. 


Natural  science,  218. 
Nature,  study  of,  219. 
Nature  of  incentives,  131. 
Nature's    means,     163;     penalties, 

199. 

Neatness,  64,  115,  232,  242. 
Necessity  and  freedom  of  will,  108. 
Necromancer,  164. 
Need  of  warning,  195. 
Needs  of  teachers,  239. 
Neighbor,  love  thy,  171. 
Nobility,  234,  249,  260. 
Non-promotion  of  pupils,  185. 

Oath,  an,  237,  267;  perjury,  237; 
civil  oath,  298;  in  court,  302. 

Obedience  necessary,  109,  121; 
cheerful  and  prompt,  122;  outer 
conformity,  123;  moral  obliga- 
tion, 128;  free  and  voluntary, 
128;  to  law,  191;  lessons  in, 
233,  248,  258,  278. 

Objection  to  moral  instruction,  221. 

Obligation,  128,  182. 

Occasions  for  will  training,  114; 
regularity,  114;  punctuality, 
115;  neatness,  115;  accuracy, 
116;  silence,  118;  industry,  119; 
obedience,  121. 

Occasions  of  activity,  162. 

Offenders,  detection  of,  177. 

Offenses,  punishment  of,  190,  191; 
mode  of  treating,  192;  not  for- 
bidden, 199;  punishment  adapted 
to  nature  of,  200. 

Ohio  surgeon,  experiences  of,  202. 

Ojibway  Indians,  145* 

Old-time  practice,  IOO;  regime, 
185;  school,  164. 

Omniscient  Eye,  298. 

Opinions,  preconceived,  192. 

Opportunities  for  using  natural  in- 
centives, 149. 

Order,  100;  of  topics,  112;  of 
psychical  facts,  222. 

Organization,  school,  15* 

Ought,  the  imperative,  130,  150. 

Outlines  (summary)  of  school  gov- 
ernment, 102;  of  moral  training, 
189;  of  punishment,  217;  °f 
moral  instruction,  238. 


INDEX. 


3*7 


Outlines  of  lessons  in  morals  and 
manners,  232-237. 

Pain  and  loss  punitive,  193. 

Pain,  purpose  of,  193,  212. 

Pains  and  penalties,  new,  185. 

Parables,  227. 

Patriotism,  237,  268. 

Pauline  principle,  58. 

Pedantry,  156. 

Penal  rules,  190, 191;  reforms,  201. 

Penalties,  144,  185. 

Percentage  idol,  154;  system,  155; 
scale,  156. 

Personal  magnetism,  19;  liberty, 
57,  167;  love,  in;  experience, 
195;  indignities,  211. 

Pestalozzi,  32;  at  Stantz,  32. 

Physical  education,  12;  environ- 
ment, 58;  comfort,  80;  train- 
ing, 83;  law,  relation  of,  193. 

Physiology,  23. 

Pictures  in  school,  62;  blackboard, 
63;  for  moral  instruction,  227. 

Plans,  special,  29. 

Play,  detention  from,  213. 

Poetry,  225. 

Politeness,  232,  242. 

Popular  Educator,  143. 

Popularity,  56. 

Porter,  Dr.  Noah,  108,  167. 

Position,  81,  82. 

Power,  13;  of  eye,  39;  and  ten- 
dency, 1 06. 

Practical  wisdom,  41. 

Practice,  guide  in,  9;  need  of,  29. 

Prayer,  300,  304. 

Preparation  for  life,  14;  special, 
20;  daily,  25;  of  seat  work,  99. 

Present-mindedness,  38. 

President  Harrison's  address,  186. 

Prevention,  84. 

Primary  grade,  92;  classes,  97; 
moral  lessons  for,  242-253. 

Primary  law  of  moral  instruction, 
225. 

Principles,  130;  and  practice,  18. 

Privileges,  140;  how  used  as  in- 
centives, 141. 

Prize  system,  133-135;  essential 
conditions  wanting,  134;  evil 


influence,  136;  endangers  health, 
13&)  J39;  second  basis,  139. 

Profanity,  266. 

Programme,  daily,  86;  study  and 
seat  work,  87;  three-grade,  88, 
90;  division  of  time  between 
grades,  89. 

Prohibitory  rules,  50. 

Promotion  of  pupils,  15. 

Protestantism  not  a  sect,  305. 

Proverbs  and  maxims,  226,  227. 
293,  294. 

Prudence,  235. 

Psychical  facts,  106,  222. 

Public  school,  301,  302. 

Punctuality,  115,  125. 

Punishment  (0),  15;  fear  of,  109, 
127;  penal  rules,  190;  infliction 
of,  191;  principles,  192;  human, 
193;  when  to  be  inflicted,  193. 

Punishment  (<$),  ends  of,  192, 
194-197;  to  reform  wrongdoer, 
194;  to  deter  others  from  wrong- 
doing, 195;  to  condemn  wrong- 
doing, 196;  dignity  of  the  law, 
197;  protection  of  others,  197. 

Punishment  (r),  characteristics  of, 
198;  certainty,  198;  nature's 
penalties  certain,  199;  justice, 
200;  penal  legislation,  200;  penal 
reforms,  201 ;  natural,  203;  illus- 
trations, family  and  school,  204; 
prison  discipline,  205;  wide  ap- 
plication, 205 ;  high  qualifications 
requisite,  205 ;  school  experience, 
206;  limits  of  natural,  207,  208; 
suspension  from  school,  209;  cor- 
poral, 210. 

Punishments,  improper,  210-213; 
other  modes,  213-216. 

Pupils,  conduct  of,  not  personal, 
33;  seating  of,  80;  postures  of, 
8 1 ;  weak,  85 ;  record  of  standing, 
157;  questioning  as  to  offenses, 
177;  frightening  of,  1 88. 

Purity,  moral,  116. 

Qualifications  requisite,  48. 
Question,  the  vital,  126. 
Questioning  pupils  as  to  offenses, 
.    177- 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


Questions  in  punishing  a  pupil,  194, 
195;  on  stories,  229. 

Reading,  home,  240. 

Rebellion,  207. 

Recess,  169. 

Record  of  pupils'  standing,  157, 
214. 

Regularity,  114,  125,  128. 

Regulations,  school,  50. 

Reid,  Thomas,  136. 

Religion  in  the  school,   295-309; 

'  of  the  Bible,  297;  religious  sanc- 
tions and  motives,  298;  not  the 
end  of  the  school,  298,  300;  re- 
ligious means  needed  in  moral 
training,  301 ;  violence  to  pupils' 
religious  nature,  302;  devotional 
exercises,  304;  what  is  needed, 
308;  golden  mean,  309. 

Religious  beliefs,  primary,  296, 
297. 

Religious  impressions,  307. 

Religious     instruction,     301,    302, 

Religious  means,  301;  influence, 
301,  303,  306;  presence  of  reli- 
gious truths,  302;  teacher  respon- 
sive to,  303;  Christian  literature, 
303;  the  Bible,  303;  devotional 
exercises,  304;  conscientious 
scruples,  307;  exclusion  of  re- 
ligion not  possible,  308. 

Religious  motives,  295;  relation  to 
the  moral  law,  296. 

Religious  sanctions,  295,  296,  297, 
298,  301. 

Religious  teaching,  299. 

Religious  truth,  300,  302. 

Reproof  or  rebuke,  213. 

Reputation,  265. 

Respect  and  reverence,  234,  260. 

Reverence,  234,  260;   for  law,  297. 

Rewards,  artificial,  139,  140;  and 
punishments,  185. 

Ridicule  and  sarcasm,  212. 

Right  habits,  95;  motives,  109, 
149;  feelings,  112;  living,  ap- 
prenticeship in,  149;  sense  of 
right,  1 80. 

Rod,  use  of,  202,  210,  212. 


Rules,  prohibitory,  50;  few,  if  any, 
100;  when  enacted,  101;  that 
cannot  be  enforced,  101;  code 
of,  182,  190;  penal,  190;  to  be 
enforced,  190. 

Sacred  song,  308,  309. 

Sanctions,  religious,  295. 

Sarcasm,  212. 

Satisfaction,  degrees  of,  159. 

Sayings,  brief,  291,292. 

Scholarship,  21,  161. 

School  and  family,  122. 

School,  ends  of,  298;   function  of, 

299;   may  use  religion,  300. 
School,  the  ideal,  101. 
School,   the   modern,    industry   in, 

120;  ideal,  170. 
School  attainments,  140. 
School  boards,  powers  of,  49,  50. 
School  conduct,  treatment  of,  181. 
School  desks,  76,  78. 
School  director,  authority  of,  51. 
School  discipline,  test  of,  191,  192; 

moral  value  of,  218. 
School  drill,  165. 
School  duties,  moral  worth  of,  125; 

moral  efficiency,  126. 
School  education,  171,  172. 
School  furniture,  78,  79. 
School    government,    9-102;    ends 

of,    13,    105;    function   of,   106; 

as   an   art,    106;    conditions   of, 

48-79;   mechanical  devices,  80- 

102;   reforms  in,  190. 
Schoolhouses,  two,  60,  61. 
School  life,  149. 
School  regulations,  50. 
Schoolrooms,  attractive,  58,  59,  62; 

neatness  of,  64;  temperature  of, 

65;   lighting  of,  75- 
School  supplies,  98. 
School  tasks  as  penalties,  144. 
School    training,    128;    utility    of, 

171,  172. 
School    virtues,     114-125;     moral 

worth  of,  125;  efficiency  of,  126. 
Schools,  rural,  54,  89. 
Schurman,  J.  G.,  108. 
Scripture  reading,  304. 
Seating  of  pupils,  80,  84;  distance 


INDEX. 


319 


from  stove,  81 ;  alternate  classes, 
84;  separation  of  weak  pupils, 
85;  first  day,  85. 

Seats,  arranging  of,  75 ;  height  of, 
76;  foot  rests,  77;  curved,  78; 
too  wide,  78;  resulting  evils,  78. 

Seat  work,  86;   preparation  of,  99. 

Sectarian  instruction,  305;  schools 
not,  309. 

Seelye,  Dr.  J.  H.,  108,  299. 

Self-activity,  168. 

Self -approval,  167. 

Self -care,  171. 

Self-conduct,  desire  for,  150;  man- 
ly, 166. 

Self-control,  14,  118, 127,  150,  166, 
170,  235,  264. 

Self-direction,  167,  168. 

Self-governing  high  school,  170. 

Self-government,  14,  166,  167. 

Self-interest,  170. 

Selfishness,  118,  170,  271. 

Self-love,  170. 

Self-mastery,  167. 

Self-regulating  system,  94;  details, 
95;  in  primary  classes,  97. 

Self-reporting  system,  94,  178; 
method,  179;  caution,  180. 

Self-respect,  150,  166,  235. 

Self-restraint,  167. 

Sensations,  10,  163. 

Sense,  meaning  of,  152;  of  duty, 
107,  151,  153,  182;  of  honor, 
151,  153,  173,  177,  180;  of 
right,  151,  153,  180;  of  shame, 
214. 

Seven  school  virtues,  1 14. 

Shame,  sense  of,  214. 

Show  of  force,  no,  37. 

Sight  and  hearing,  39. 

Silence,  36,  37,  118,  127;  practical 
value  in  school,  118;  moral 
value,  119. 

Simple  scale,  156;  symbols,  156. 

Sin,  181. 

Skill,  13;  in  teaching,  26;  in  man- 
aging, 27;  wins  confidence,  27; 
acquisition  of,  28,  29;  in  school 
effort,  165. 

Skillful  teaching,  163;  action,  165. 

Slander,  237,  267. 


Smith,  Dr.  Angus,  71. 

Socrates,  28. 

Songs,  227;   sacred,  308,  309, 

Soul-sight,  38. 

Spasms,  weakness  of,  35. 

Speaking  evil,  237,  267. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  206. 

Spencer,  Platt  R.,  27. 

Spirit  of  moral  instruction,  230. 

Standard,  approved,  55;  high,  for 
teachers,  57. 

Standing,  record  of,  157. 

State,  religion  not  its  end,  299. 

Statutes,  dead,  191. 

Steps  to  conduct,  psychical,  in; 
in  teaching  knowledge,  162. 

Stories,  227;  selection  of,  239; 
brevity  of,  240;  ethical  value  of, 
240;  for  primary  grades,  242- 
253;  for  grammar  grades,  254- 
269;  miscellaneous,  270-281. 

Stove,  ventilating,  68. 

Study  and  health,  24,  25. 

Success,  measure  of,  10;  compared 
with  fidelity,  159. 

Sunny  spirit,  46. 

Superintendents,  mistakes  of,  52. 

Surroundings  of  school,  58,  59. 

Suspension  of  pupils,  43,  185,  209. 

Symbols,  word,  156. 

System,  need  of,  99. 

Tales,  fairy,  227,  278,  280;  Jataka, 
280. 

Tasks,  imposition  of,  215. 

Teacher  as  governor,  17-47;  vital 
factor  in  school,  19;  possessing 
requisite  qualifications,  48;  req- 
uisite authority,  48;  authority 
questioned,  53;  and  pupil,  53; 
worthy  of  confidence,  56;  judged 
by  a  high  standard,  57;  in  loco 
parentis,  177. 

Teacher's  influence,  43;  example, 
45 ;  authority  questioned  by  par- 
ents, 53;  worth  as  a  man,  56. 

Teachers,  appointment  of,  55; 
emancipation  of,  147;  needs  of, 

239- 

Teaching,  skillful,  163;  good,  218. 
Temper,  control  of,  46. 


320 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


Temperance,  236,  274. 

Temperature,  influence  of,  64;  of 
schoolroom,  65;  record  of,  66. 

Temporary  expedients,  145. 

Tendency  and  power,  106. 

Test  of  devices,  10;  of  school  disci- 
pline, 191;  of  school  efficiency, 

3°°' 
Testimony,  177;  in  court,  302. 

Thankfulness,  234,  273. 

Thermometer,  how  hung,  66. 

Three-form  course  of  study,  93; 
programme,  94. 

Three-grade  programme,  88,  90; 
exercises,  92. 

Time,  division  of,  89. 

Tongue,  silent,  37. 

Topics,  order  of,  112. 

Training,  physical,  83,.  Ill;  as- 
sistants, 96;  moral,  103-189, 
105,  no,  112,  122;  character, 
105;  will,  109,  ill,  114-129; 
intellectual  in. 

Treatment  of  school  conduct,  181; 
of  punishment,  192. 

Troy  schoolhouse  and  grounds,  61. 

True  ends,  143;  life,  230;  value, 
307- 

Truth,  262,  270;  religious,  300. 

Truth  and  falsehood,  44. 

Truthfulness,  46,  117,  124;  lessons 
on,  233,  246,  256. 

Unconscious  tuition,  44. 
.Ungraded  schools,  programme  for, 
86;    Wisconsin  course  of   study 
for,  93. 

Unjust  punishment,  201,  202. 
'Unselfish  conduct  rewarded,  271. 
UseJulness,  desire  for,  150. 
Utility  of  school  education,  171. 

Ventilation,  66;  need  of,  67; 
neglect  of,  68;  improved  sys- 
tems, 68;  by  windows,  71;  sug- 
gestions for,  72;  devices  for,  73. 


Ventilation  and  heating,  64. 
Ventilating  stove,  68-70. 
Vice  in  contrast  with  virtue,  231. 
Violation  of  physical  law,  193. 
Virtues,  seven  school,  114;    other, 

123;  cardinal,  123;   to  be  taught, 

231. 

Virtuous  action,  130. 
Vital    factor,    19;     question,    126; 

teaching,  158. 
Violence    to    religious    nature    of 

pupils,  302. 
Vocabulary  of  duty,  last  word  in, 

182. 
Volition,  107. 

Warning,  need  of,  195. 

Wayward  pupils,  control  of,  30. 

Weak  pupils,  separation  of,  85. 

Webster's  Speller,  125. 

Whipping,  146,  202. 

Whisper  somewhere,  40. 

Whispering,  181. 

Wielders  of  the  birch,  186. 

Will,  the,  107,  no;  motives,  109; 
determines  conduct,  222. 

Will  power,  34. 

Will  training,  109,  114-129;  occa- 
sions for,  114;  seven  school  re-> 
suits,  114;  cardinal  virtues,  123; 
moral  worth  depends  on  motives, 
125,  126;  obedience  to  right  mo- 
tives, 130;  maxim  for,  I54« 

Window  ventilation  dangerous,  71; 
suggestions  respecting,  72;  de« 
vices  for,  73. 

Wisconsin  three-grade  course,  93. 

Wood-shed  rule,  100. 

Wood  symbols,  156. 

Work,  preparation  of  pupils',  99. 

Worry,  remedy  for,  26. 

Worship,  formal,  in  school,  305; 
religious,  309. 

Wotton,  Sir  Henry,  167. 

Written  examinations,  124,  158. 

Wrongdoing,  prevention  of,  194. 


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